Non-Carcinogenic Health Risk Evaluation of Elevated Fluoride in Groundwater and Its Suitability Assessment for Drinking Purposes Based on Water Quality Index

Abstract

Fluoride (F−) contamination in drinking groundwater is a significant human health risk in Pakistan. Moreover, high fluoride pollution in drinking water causes a variety of disorders, including dental, neurological, and skeletal fluorosis. The aim of this research was to evaluate the health risk of elevated fluoride in groundwater and its suitability assessment for drinking purposes. The total of (n = 37) samples were collected from community tube wells of Quetta Valley, Balochistan, Pakistan. The results show a mean pH value of 7.7, TDS of 404.6 mg/L, EC of 500 µs/cm, depth of 96.8 feet, and turbidity of 1.7 nephelometric turbidity units. The mean values of HCO3−, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Na+, were 289.5, 47.5, 30.6, and 283.3 mg/L, respectively. The mean values of SO42−, NO3−, K+, Cl−, and Fe2+, were 34.9, 1.0, 1.6, 25.6, and 0.01 mg/L, respectively. The F− concentration in the groundwater varied between 0.19 and 6.21, with a mean value of 1.8 mg/L, and 18 samples out of 37 were beyond the WHO recommended limit of 1.5 mg/L. The hydrochemical analysis results indicated that among the groundwater samples of the study area, 54% samples were Na-HCO3 type and 46% were mixed CaNaHCO3 type. The saturation indices of the mineral phases reveal that the groundwater sources of the study area were saturated with CaCO3 and halide minerals due to their positive (SI) values. Such minerals include calcite, dolomite, gypsum, and fluorite. The principal component analysis results reveal that the groundwater sources of the study area are contaminated due to geological and anthropogenic actions. The health risk assessment results of the F− concentrations show the ranges of ADDingestion for children, females, and males in the Quetta Valley, and their mean values were observed to be 0.093052, 0.068825, and 0.065071, respectively. The HQingestion mean values were 1.55086, 1.147089, and 1.084521 for children, females, and males, respectively. It was noticed that children had the highest maximum and average values of ADDingestion and HQingestion in the research area, indicating that groundwater fluoride intake poses the greatest health risk to children. The water quality index (WQI) analyses show that 44% of the samples belong to the poor-quality category, 49% were of good quality, and 8% of the samples of the study area belong to the excellent category.

Evaluation of Water Quality of Collected Rainwater in the Northeastern Loess Plateau

“…Common anions in water (Cl − , NO 3 − , SO 4 2− ) and common cations (Na + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , K + ) form hardness and alkalinity, and the variation in the amount between anions and cations affects the pH of the water, thus determining the water properties. Ullah et al [5] conducted a water chemistry analysis in Pakistan for pH, HCO 3 − , Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Na + , NO 3 − , K + , Cl − , and F − ; using WQI water quality indicators, 44% of the water in the area was found to be poor-quality water. Khan [6] collected water samples from 43 sites in the Tehir Isahel, Mianwali, Punjab, Pakistan area and measured physical and chemical parameters such as pH, conductivity, total hardness, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Cl − , and F − concentrations; most of the water was not usable for drinking.…”