Nutrient and Sensory Metabolites Profiling of Averrhoa Carambola L. (Starfruit) in the Context of Its Origin and Ripening Stage by GC/MS and Chemometric Analysis

Abstract

Averrhoa carambola L. is a tropical tree with edible fruit that grows at different climatic conditions. Despite its nutritive value and reported health benefits, it is a controversial fruit owing to its rich oxalate content. The present study aimed at investigating aroma and nutrient primary metabolites distribution in A. carambola fruits grown in Indonesia, Malaysia (its endemic origin) versus Egypt, and at different ripening stages. Two techniques were employed to assess volatile and non-volatile metabolites including headspace solid-phase micro-extraction (HS-SPME) joined with gas chromatography coupled with mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) and GC-MS post silylation, respectively. Twenty-four volatiles were detected, with esters amounting for the major class of volatiles in Egyptian fruit at ca. 66%, with methyl caproate as the major component, distinguishing it from other origins. In contrast, aldehydes predominated tropically grown fruits with the ether myristicin found exclusively in these. Primary metabolites profiling led to the identification of 117 metabolites viz. sugars, polyols and organic acids. Fructose (38–48%) and glucose (21–25%) predominated sugar compositions in ripe fruits, whereas sorbitol was the major sugar alcohol (2.4–10.5%) in ripe fruits as well. Oxalic acid, an anti-nutrient with potential health risks, was the major organic acid detected in all the studied fruits (1.7–2.7%), except the Malaysian one (0.07%). It increases upon fruit ripening, including considerable amounts of volatile oxalate esters detected via SPME, and which must not be omitted in total oxalate determinations for safety assessments.

Identification of Epicatechin Gallate and Other Phytochemicals in Methanol Extract of Fresh and Dried Star-Fruits (Averrhoa carambola Linn.) for Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

“…Comparing to previous studies, the results of our RSFs extracts' GC-MS analysis differed.. According to a research study conducted in Malaysia, Tridecane, 4-methyl-compound has the highest peak with 13.75 min R.T. At the same time, GCMS analysis of RSFs extracts from Bogor Indonesian, Egypt, and India indicated that the highest peak was Nerylacetone at 4.43 min R.T., Methyl caproate at 7 min R.T. and 9-Octadecenoic acid (Z)-, methyl ester at 22 min R.T. respectively [20,21]. Despite limitations of GC-MS analysis in terms of the mass range and metabolites polarity, using the derivatization technique has expanded the range of separable and detectable chemical compounds in high-throughput profiling research.…”

Comparative Chemical Profiles of the Essential Oils from Different Varieties of Psidium guajava L.

“…The chemical compounds of the identified EOs were extracted using MET-IDEA software with default parameter settings for GC-MS [ 50 ]. The aligned peak abundance data table was further exported to principal component analysis (PCA) using the SIMCA-P version 13.0 software package (Umetrics, Umeå, Sweden).…”

Traditional Uses, Phytochemical Constituents and Pharmacological Properties of Averrhoa carambola L.: A Review

“…Moreover, the proportion of total unsaturated fatty acids existing both in the fruits and leaves of A. carambola comprise more than 77% of total fatty acid ( Wei et al, 2014 ). The fructose content (38–48%) and glucose content (21–25%) have predominantly sugar-based compositions in A. carambola ripe fruits, while sorbitol is also another major sugar alcohol (2.4–10.5%) in ripe fruits ( Ramadan et al, 2020 ). Additionally, the presence of high amounts of fibers in this plant contributes to the absorption of glucose, restraint glucose diffusion into the bloodstream, and maintain normal blood glucose levels ( Fan et al, 2020 ).…”