Nutritional and Digestive Challenges to Being a Gum-Feeding Primate

Abstract

Gum is an unusual food that presents significant challenges to animals that feed on it. Gum is limited in availability; trees generally secrete it only in response to damage. Gum is a b-linked complex polysaccharide, and as such is resistant to mammalian digestive enzymes and requires fermentation by gut microbes. It contains little or no lipid, low amounts of protein, and no appreciable levels of vitamins. As a food, gum can be characterized as difficult to obtain, potentially limited in quantity, difficult to digest, and primarily a source of energy and minerals. Despite these drawbacks, many primates feed extensively on gums. Among mammals, gum-feeding largely appears to be a primate dietary adaptation. Why are there so many primate gum-feeders and what adaptations have allowed them to make a living on such a problematic food? This is the central question of this book. This chapter examines digestive and nutritional aspects of gum. Specific examples of biological adaptations found in common and pygmy marmosets (Callithrix jacchus and Cebuella pygmaea), small New World primate gum-feeding specialists, will be examined. These marmoset species have many similarities in their behavior, morphology and metabolism, but also some instructive differences in their digestive function. C. pygmaea is the smallest of the marmosets but has the slowest passage rate of digesta. This might represent an adaptation to retain difficult-to-digest material, such as gum, within the gut to allow fermentation. In contrast, C. jacchus has a rapid passage rate. Passage rate in C. jacchus appears adapted more for rapidly excreting indigestible material (e.g., seeds) than for retaining gum within the gut to enable more complete digestion. Fruit is a rare component of C. pygmaea's diet; hence any constraint on feeding caused by filling the gut with ingested seeds is greatly relaxed, apparently enabling digestive kinetics that favor digestive efficiency over maximizing food intake. Interestingly, however, these marmosets share an ability to digest gum despite their differences in gum kinetics. In captivity both species have been shown to be more able to digest Acacia gum than related species that feed less often on gum in the wild.

Spatial and temporal ecological diversity amongst eocene primates of france: Evidence from teeth

“…As such, some harder exogenous particles can be expected to end up at the level of the molars during mastication. Another point to consider is that, although some primates feed extensively on gums, it does not provide all the necessary nutrients for a complete diet (Power, 2010). Gum-eating primates need to complete their diet with other resources, like insects or fruit, which would have the physical properties necessary to scar enamel.…”

“…Exudates and gums constitute a more constant resource, which is less susceptible to seasonal variations than other foods (Nash, 1986;Power, 2010). Although often grouped within ''fruit-eating,'' eating gums or other plant exudates implies a different set of adaptations and foraging strategies.…”

Medicinal plant exudativory by the Bengal slow loris Nycticebus bengalensis

“…The preferred plant species were comparatively less abundant than the non-preferred species. Although E i * provides the single best electivity index (Le chowicz 1982), more information is required on the nutritional content of and seasonal changes in the composition of exudates (Power 2010 (Table 4). A number of the medicinal plants consumed by lorises have pharmacological importance and have antiparasitic, antifungal, antibacterial, antiviral cardiotonic and stimulatory properties, as well as uses in respiratory disease and wound healing cures in traditional medicines.…”

Pygmy slow loris Nycticebus pygmaeus—natural diet replication in captivity

“…Nycticebus pygmaeus exhibits a gouging behaviour (methodical biting of tree lignin and cambium) to harvest exudates from trees such as gum trees (Starr & Nekaris 2013). Unrefined gum from wild species of trees is said to contain an important amount of calcium, which may be important to balance out the high phosphorous concentration found within the invertebrates that they ingest (Charles-Dominique 1977, Power 2010. Lorises have been recorded feeding from a variety of tree species nightly, specifically Sapindaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Anarcdiaceae and Burseraceae (Tan & Drake 2001, Nekaris et al 2010, Streicher et al 2013.…”