On aerosol production and enrichment by breaking wind waves

Kerman, Bryan R.

doi:10.1080/07055900.1986.9649255

Cited by 5 publications

(3 citation statements)

References 45 publications

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“…Aerosolization of ENMs from coastal splash and resuspension of ENMs attached to surface soil particles by wind events result in transfer back to the aerosols compartment. Transport from seawater to the aerosol compartment was computed using a flux equation that relies on enrichment factors of trace metals, − which we assume is comparable to that of their ENM counterparts (SIUG, Section 2.3.5). For wind erosion of surface soil, we use the saltation equation and the vertical flux conversion to estimate total transport of soil particles to aerosols (SIUG, Section 2.2.1).…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Assessing the Risk of Engineered Nanomaterials in the Environment: Development and Application of the nanoFate Model

Garner

Suh

Keller

2017

Environ. Sci. Technol.

227

166

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We developed a dynamic multimedia fate and transport model (nanoFate) to predict the time-dependent accumulation of metallic engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) across environmental media. nanoFate considers a wider range of processes and environmental subcompartments than most previous models and considers ENM releases to compartments (e.g., urban, agriculture) in a manner that reflects their different patterns of use and disposal. As an example, we simulated ten years of release of nano CeO 2 , CuO, TiO 2 , and ZnO in the San Francisco Bay area. Results show that even soluble metal oxide ENMs may accumulate as nanoparticles in the environment in sufficient concentrations to exceed the minimum toxic threshold in freshwater and some soils, though this is more likely with high-production ENMs such as TiO 2 and ZnO. Fluctuations in weather and release scenario may lead to circumstances where predicted ENM concentrations approach acute toxic concentrations. The fate of these ENMs is to mostly remain either aggregated or dissolved in agricultural lands receiving biosolids and in freshwater or marine sediments. Comparison to previous studies indicates the importance of some key model aspects including climatic and temporal variations, how ENMs may be released into the environment, and the effect of compartment composition on predicted concentrations.

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Assessing the Risk of Engineered Nanomaterials in the Environment: Development and Application of the nanoFate Model

Garner

Suh

Keller

2017

Environ. Sci. Technol.

227

166

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“…In contrast, the number of jet droplets increases with decreasing bubble size, with bubbles less the 0.3-mm-diameter producing five or more jet droplets (Blanchard and Syzdek 1982). Bubbles in the flush water may be produced when air is entrained in agitated water, as by a submerged jet or during a turbulent flush, in a manner similar to air entrainment in seawater by wave action and whitecaps (see, e.g., the discussion by Kerman 1986). The resulting bubble burst aerosol would thus be expected to be somewhat bimodal, as was seen by Baron and Willeke (1986) when they measured droplet aerosols above heated whirlpools agitated with jets.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Aerosol Generation by Modern Flush Toilets

Johnson

Lynch

Marshall

et al. 2013

Aerosol Science and Technology

117

134

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A microbe-contaminated toilet will produce bioaerosols when flushed. We assessed toilet plume aerosol from high efficiency (HET), pressure-assisted high efficiency (PAT), and flushometer (FOM) toilets with similar bowl water and flush volumes. Total and droplet nuclei "bioaerosols" were assessed. Monodisperse 0.25-1.9-µm fluorescent microspheres served as microbe surrogates in separate trials in a mockup 5 m 3 water closet (WC). Bowl water seeding was approximately 10 12 particles/mL. Droplet nuclei were sampled onto 0.2-µm pore size mixed cellulose ester filters beginning 15 min after the flush using open-face cassettes mounted on the WC walls. Pre-and postflush bowl water concentrations were measured. Filter particle counts were analyzed via fluorescent microscopy. Bowl headspace droplet count size distributions were bimodal and similar for all toilet types and flush conditions, with 95% of droplets <2 µm diameter and >99% <5 µm. Up to 145,000 droplets were produced per flush, with the high-energy flushometer producing over three times as many as the lower energy PAT and over 12 times as many as the lowest energy HET despite similar flush volumes. The mean numbers of fluorescent droplet nuclei particles aerosolized and remaining airborne also increased with flush energy. Fluorescent droplet nuclei per flush decreased with increasing particle size. These findings suggest two concurrent aerosolization mechanisms-splashing for large droplets and bubble bursting for the fine droplets that form droplet nuclei.

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“…Most of droplets quickly evaporate into the droplet nuclei. In addition, bubbles may be generated when air is entrained by stirred water, as in the case of air entrainment above seawater by wave action and whitecaps 15 . Bubble bursting may also produce aerosols 16 .…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Particle exposure risk to a lavatory user after flushing a squat toilet

Zhang

Yao

Gao

et al. 2022

Sci Rep

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Squat toilets are widely used in developing countries due to local customs and low costs. The flushing of a squat toilet can entrain strong airflow and produce aerosols. This investigation constructed a lavatory mock-up with a squat toilet. The flushing-induced airflow was both visualized and quantitatively measured by particle image velocimetry. The maximum height of the impacted airflow was identified by an ultrasonic anemometer. For inference of the particle emission rate, the toilet bowl was covered by an enclosed box for particle concentration measurement. The risks from skin contact of the deposited particles on the flushing button and the door handle and the possible inhalation of the released aerosols were evaluated. The results revealed that flushing a squat toilet can drive toilet plume to rise up to 0.9 m above the toilet bowl. A single flushing process can produce 0.29 million particles with diameters greater than 0.3 μm, among which 90% of the particles are submicron-sized. The flushing may cause particles to deposit on the flushing button and lavatory door handle as well as inhalation exposure even remaining in the lavatory for half a minute after flushing, especially for those lavatory users whose respiratory zones are below 1.0 m.

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On aerosol production and enrichment by breaking wind waves

Cited by 5 publications

References 45 publications

Assessing the Risk of Engineered Nanomaterials in the Environment: Development and Application of the nanoFate Model

Assessing the Risk of Engineered Nanomaterials in the Environment: Development and Application of the nanoFate Model

Aerosol Generation by Modern Flush Toilets

Particle exposure risk to a lavatory user after flushing a squat toilet

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