On the Periodical Alterations,and Progressive Permanent Depression, of the Chalk Water Level Under London. (Includes Plate).

The First Potentiometric Map

“…Hence, in the second half of the 19th century, many European cities chose to develop water resources from groundwater. Brick (2013) mentioned that water table or potentiometric surfaces were originally represented explicitly in cross-sections from 1850 onwards (Clutterbuck 1850). Water table or potentiometric maps for unconfined and confined conditions were presented, first in Belgium by Gustave Dumont in 1856, followed by Delesse (1858Delesse ( , 1862 in France, Lucas (1874) in the UK (Mather et al 2004), Gümbel (1875) and Thiem (1876) in Germany, Veeren (1893) and Pennink (1904) in The Netherlands and King (1899) and Darton (1909) in the United States.…”

“Water Flowing Uphill Is One of the Commonest Facts of Nature”: The Emergence of a Visual Language for Groundwater Geology

“…Water tables were depicted in a more satisfactory way in the British hydrogeological cross sections of Clutterbuck () in his studies of the depression of “the Chalk Water level under London,” followed by those of Lucas () for the Thames Basin, because the underlying geology was fully integrated. The representation of potentiometric surfaces in artesian cross sections was merely suggested in Darcy (, Plate 22) but fully elaborated by his disciple and colleague, Dupuit ().…”

“…This simplified depiction of the English countryside with an exaggerated vertical scale led Bland to an early recognition that "this height accompanies the rise and fall of the great hills," or as we would say today, that the water table reflects the topography (Figure 1). Water tables were depicted in a more satisfactory way in the British hydrogeological cross sections of Clutterbuck (1850) in his studies of the depression of "the Chalk Water level under London," followed by those of Lucas (1877) for the Thames Basin, because the underlying geology was fully integrated. The representation of potentiometric surfaces in artesian cross sections was merely suggested in Darcy (2004, Plate 22) but fully elaborated by his disciple and colleague, Dupuit (1863).…”