Thus
far, tremendous efforts have been made to understand the biosafety
of metal-based nanoparticles (MNPs). Nevertheless, most previous studies
focused on specific adverse outcomes of MNPs at unrealistically high
concentrations with little relevance to the National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) exposure thresholds, and failed
to comprehensively evaluate their toxicity profiles. To address these
challenges, we here endeavored to multihierarchically profile the
hazard effects of various popularly used MNPs in macrophages under
low exposure doses. At these doses, no remarkable cell viability drop
and cell death were induced. However, a cellular antioxidant defense
system was seen to be initiated in cells by all MNPs even at these
low concentrations, albeit to a differential extent and through different
pathways, as reflected by differential induction of the antioxidant
enzymes and Nrf2 signaling. Regarding inflammation, rare earth oxide
nanomaterials (REOs) except nCeO2 greatly increased IL-1β
secretion in a NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent manner. By contrast, six
REOs, AgNP-5nm, nFe2O3, nFe3O4, and nZnO were found to elevate TNF-α concentration
through post-transcriptional regulation. Moreover, all MNPs except
nCeO2 drastically altered cellular membrane/cytoskeleton
meshwork, but leading to different outcomes, with condensed cellular
size and reduced numbers of protrusions by REOs and elongated protrusions
by other MNPs. Consequently, REOs (e.g., nDy2O3 and nSm2O3) impaired phagocytosis of macrophages,
and other MNPs (such as AgNP-25nm and nZnO) reversely enhanced macrophagic
phagocytosis. Alterations of membrane and cytoskeleton meshwork induced
by these MNPs also caused disordered membrane potential and calcium
ion flux. Collectively, our data profiled the biological effects of
different MNPs in macrophages under low exposure doses, and deciphered
a complex network that links multiparallel pathways and processes
to differential adverse outcomes.