Order Diptera as a model in the studies of insect immunity: a review

Abstract

Order Diptera is the most important group of animals when it comes to insect immunity research. The largest share of experimental data in the group falls on the genus Drosophila-a model species with a number of advantages. Other crucial representatives are those of the mosquito group, as they are vectors of a number of infectious diseases, infecting higher vertebrates and humans. Representatives of the genera Anopheles, Aedes and Culex are very significant model organisms. In total, more than 40 dipteran species are being actively studied as models in various aspects related to immunity. Together with the representatives of the order Lepidoptera, they share the vast majority of the knowledge gained so far on the defense mechanisms in insects. The current review demonstrates that the studies conducted on dipteran species concern all existing mechanisms of immune defense, namely antimicrobial peptides, signaling pathways, pathogen recognition, the different types of hemocytes, antiviral and other immune responses (phagocytosis, nodulation, melanization and encapsulation).

Fat Body—Multifunctional Insect Tissue

“…When infection of the body cavities occurs, effectors are produced after a few hours and transferred to the hemolymph [123,125,126]. Notably, most of the information on the functioning of the immune system of insects has been obtained by tests on the order Diptera [127].…”

No neonates without adults

“…The relative breadth of the niche which H. illucens occupies is curious to consider, particularly because they must contend with biological threats emanating from pathogens (fungi, [57] Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, [57] and entomopathogenic nematodes [58] ), insect predators and parasitoids, [59][60][61][62] as well as interkingdom, [63] intraguild, [64] and intraspecific competitors; [65] and yet, persist worldwide. Moreover, while most Stratiomyidae are confined to relatively narrow aquatic niches or scavenge amongst rotting wood, dung, or animal nests, [4] H. illucens can consume virtually any non-ligneous, non-chitinous organic matter [66] and has made an additional evolutionary "leap" to become facultative colonizers of carrion as well.…”

A Viral Pathogen from Pine Processionary Moth, Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Denis & Schiffermuller, 1775) (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae)

“…While insects have many beneficial roles in research (Takov et al 2020), medicine and agriculture (Demirözer et al 2020), the number of different plant-damaging insects is considerably high (Kanat et al 2005, Erkan 2018, Kuyulu andGenç 2020, İnal andKandemir 2020). Pine processionary moth, Thaumetopoea pityocampa (Den.…”