Order Diptera is the most important group of animals when it comes to insect immunity research. The largest share of experimental data in the group falls on the genus Drosophila-a model species with a number of advantages. Other crucial representatives are those of the mosquito group, as they are vectors of a number of infectious diseases, infecting higher vertebrates and humans. Representatives of the genera Anopheles, Aedes and Culex are very significant model organisms. In total, more than 40 dipteran species are being actively studied as models in various aspects related to immunity. Together with the representatives of the order Lepidoptera, they share the vast majority of the knowledge gained so far on the defense mechanisms in insects. The current review demonstrates that the studies conducted on dipteran species concern all existing mechanisms of immune defense, namely antimicrobial peptides, signaling pathways, pathogen recognition, the different types of hemocytes, antiviral and other immune responses (phagocytosis, nodulation, melanization and encapsulation).

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During the last few decades bat lyssaviruses have become the topic of intensive molecular and epidemiological investigations. Since ancient times rhabdoviruses have caused fatal encephalitis in humans which has led to research into effective strategies for their eradication. Modelling of potential future cross-species virus transmissions forms a substantial component of the recent infection biology of rabies. In this article we summarise the available data on the phylogeography of both bats and lyssaviruses in Europe and the adjacent regions, especially in the contact zone between the Palearctic and Ethiopian realms. Within these zones three bat families are present with high potential for cross-species transmission and the spread of lyssaviruses in Phylogroup II to Europe (part of the western Palearctic). The lack of effective therapies for rabies viruses in Phylogroups II and III generates impetus for additional phylogenetic and virological research within this geographical region.

<div>Abstract<p>Studies on human fibroblasts have led to viewing senescence as a barrier against tumorigenesis. Using keratinocytes, we show here that partially transformed and tumorigenic cells systematically and spontaneously emerge from senescent cultures. We show that these emerging cells are generated from senescent cells, which are still competent for replication, by an unusual budding-mitosis mechanism. We further present data implicating reactive oxygen species that accumulate during senescence as a potential mutagenic motor of this post-senescence emergence. We conclude that senescence and its associated oxidative stress could be a tumor-promoting state for epithelial cells, potentially explaining why the incidence of carcinogenesis dramatically increases with advanced age. [Cancer Res 2009;69(20):7917–24]</p></div>

Lepidoptera are one of the largest order among insects. Their role and importance for ecosystems is essential, especially in forestry and agricultural communities. Among the butterflies there are a large number of representatives, whose larvae are typically phyllophagous and play a significant role in the defoliation of a number of deciduous tree species. Many of them are storage pests or pests of fruit trees and crops. With an increasing demand and use of biological control approaches, such as applying entomopathogens, the question of immune mechanisms in these insects and their contribution to the study of insect immunity have become very significant. This review presents a summary including more than 40 lepidopteran species, which have been the subject of studies related to basic defense mechanisms, namely, the presence of antimicrobial peptides, hemocytes, immune and antiviral responses and signaling pathways.