Organophosphate Esters in China: Fate, Occurrence, and Human Exposure

Abstract

Organophosphate esters (OPEs) are widely used as flame retardants and plasticizers. OPEs have been released into various environments (e.g., water, sediments, dust and air, and soil). To investigate the occurrence and distribution of OPEs in various environments in China, this review collects and discusses the published scientific studies in this field. Chlorinated OPEs, as flame retardants, are the predominant OPEs found in the environment. The analysis of data revealed large concentration variations among microenvironments, including inflowing river water (range: 0.69–10.62 µgL−1), sediments (range: 0.0197–0.234 µg/g), dust (range: 8.706–34.872 µg/g), and open recycling sites’ soil (range: 0.122–2.1 µg/g). Moreover, OPEs can be detected in the air and biota. We highlight the overall view regarding environmental levels of OPEs in different matrices as a starting point to monitor trends for China. The levels of OPEs in the water, sediment, dust, and air of China are still low. However, dust samples from electronic waste workshop sites were more contaminated. Human activities, pesticides, electronics, furniture, paint, plastics and textiles, and wastewater plants are the dominant sources of OPEs. Human exposure routes to OPEs mainly include dermal contact, dust ingestion, inhalation, and dietary intake. The low level of ecological risk and risk to human health indicated a limited threat from OPEs. Furthermore, current challenges and perspectives for future studies are prospected. A criteria inventory of OPEs reflecting the levels of OPEs contamination association among different microenvironments, emerging OPEs, and potential impact of OPEs on human health, particularly for children are needed in China for better investigation.

PM2.5-Bound Organophosphate Flame Retardants in Hong Kong: Occurrence, Origins, and Source-Specific Health Risks

“…As shown in Figure S6, most OPFRs were mainly apportioned to this source in PMF, especially for TCEP, TCPP, EHDPP, and TnBP. TCPP and TPHP are mainly applied in polyurethane foam; , EHDPP is primarily used in food packaging, paints, and rubber, , while TMPP and TBOEP are used in abandoned automobiles and electric wires . Like our results, Wang et al also found waste recycling as an important source of environmental chlorinated- and aryl-OPFRs by measuring dust and soil samples collected from a waste recycling area.…”

Spatiotemporal Distribution and Analysis of Organophosphate Flame Retardants in the Environmental Systems: A Review

“…However, 1000 is the most commonly used factor when acute toxicity value is used [63]. PNEC is often determined using Equation ( 2) [31,64,65].…”

“…This assessment result could vary from low risk to high risk to the aquatic organisms in such an environment. Low risk is implied by 0.01 < RQ < 0.1; moderate risk by 0.1 < RQ < 1 and high risk by RQ > 1 [56,[65][66][67][68][69]. Table 3 shows some PNECs for OPFRs in different environmental matrices.…”

Association between Organophosphate Ester Exposure and Insulin Resistance with Glycometabolic Disorders among Older Chinese Adults 60–69 Years of Age: Evidence from the China BAPE Study

“… 19 – 21 As a substitute for polybrominated diphenyl ethers, organophosphate esters (OPEs) are commonly used as flame retardants and plasticizers, 22 and the global annual consumption of OPEs exceeded 680,000 tons in 2015, with 30% of the usage was reported in China. 23 As a result, OPEs are ubiquitously detected in Chinese individuals in the microgram to milliliter range. 24 Such high OPE exposure levels adversely impact the reproductive, endocrine, cardiovascular, and nervous systems.…”