Outbreaks of waterborne disease in the United States: 1971–1978

Craun, Gunther F.

doi:10.1002/j.1551-8833.1981.tb04733.x

Cited by 37 publications

(6 citation statements)

References 14 publications

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“…This section summarizes major reviews of outbreaks over the past 30 years in developed countries. Craun (1981) reported that Giardia lamblia was the most commonly identified pathogen, having caused 24 outbreaks from 1971 to 1978. Lippy and Waltrip (1984) reviewed outbreaks in the United States during 1946 to 1980.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Published Case Studies of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks—Evidence of a Recurrent Threat

Hrudey¹,

Hrudey²

2007

Water Environment Research

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Residents of affluent nations are remarkably lucky to have high-quality, safe drinking water supplies that most residents of modern cities enjoy, particularly when considered in contrast to the toll of death and misery that unsafe drinking water causes for most of the world's population. Some may presume that drinking-water disease outbreaks are a thing of the past, but complacency can easily arise. A review of drinking water outbreaks in developed countries over the past 3 decades reveals some of the reasons why drinking water outbreaks keep occurring when society clearly has the means to prevent them. Prevention of future outbreaks does not demand perfection, only a commitment to learn from past mistakes and to act on what has been learned. Water Environ. Res., 79, 233 (2007).

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Published Case Studies of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks—Evidence of a Recurrent Threat

Hrudey¹,

Hrudey²

2007

Water Environment Research

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“…21 In a town of 6500 people, 1200 developed acute gastroenteritis after Downloaded by [University of Auckland Library] at 16: 14 11 March 2015 consuming tap water which had been contaminated by septic tank effluent. 22 A dye tracer was used to show that the source of contamination was a septic tank' located 49 m (150 ft) from the city's drinking water well. Effluent from a septic tank serving à household which had recently had infectious hepatitis contaminated a well used to make commercial ice, resulting in a 98-person outbreak of hepatitis.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Modeling microbial fate in the subsurface environment

Yates

Gerba

1988

Critical Reviews in Environmental Control

146

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“…The increasing spontaneous occurrence of coliforms in chlorinetreated drinking water has generated concern because presently accepted standard chlorine levels are unable to eliminate these and other microorganisms (9,25,31). Parallelling the increases in reported cases of coliform occurrence in chlorinated drinking water has been an increase in the outbreaks of waterborne diseases in the United States (11,12,44).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Survival of coliforms and bacterial pathogens within protozoa during chlorination

King¹,

Shotts²,

Wooley³

et al. 1988

Appl Environ Microbiol

310

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The susceptibility of coliform bacteria and bacterial pathogens to free chlorine residuals was determined before and after incubation with amoebae and ciliate protozoa. Viability of bacteria was quantified to determine their resistance to free chlorine residuals when ingested by laboratory strains of Acanthamoeba castellanii and Tetrahymena pyriformis. Cocultures of bacteria and protozoa were incubated to facilitate ingestion of the bacteria and then were chlorinated, neutralized, and sonicated to release intracellular bacteria. Qualitative susceptibility of protozoan strains to free chlorine was also assessed. Protozoa were shown to survive and grow after exposure to levels of free chlorine residuals that killed free-living bacteria. Ingested coliforms Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, Enterobacter agglomerans, Enterobacter cloacae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Klebsiella oxytoca and bacterial pathogens Salmonella typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica, Shigella sonnei, Legionella gormanii, and Campylobacter jejuni had increased resistance to free chlorine residuals. Bacteria could be cultured from within treated protozoans well after the time required for 99% inactivation of free-living cells. All bacterial pathogens were >50-fold more resistant to free chlorinc when ingested by T. pyriformis. Escherichia coli ingested by a Cyclidium sp., a ciliate isolated from a drinking water reservoir, were also shown to be more resistant to free chlorine. The mechanism that increased resistance appeared to be survival within protozoan cells. This study indicates that bacteria can survive ingestion by protozoa. This bacterium-protozoan association provides bacteria with increased resistance to free chlorine residuals which can lead to persistence of bacteria in chlorine-treated water. We propose that resistance to digestion by predatory protozoa was an evolutionary precursor of pathogenicity in bacteria and that today it is a mechanism for survival of fastidious bacteria in dilute and inhospitable aquatic environments.

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Outbreaks of waterborne disease in the United States: 1971–1978

Cited by 37 publications

References 14 publications

Published Case Studies of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks—Evidence of a Recurrent Threat

Published Case Studies of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks—Evidence of a Recurrent Threat

Modeling microbial fate in the subsurface environment

Survival of coliforms and bacterial pathogens within protozoa during chlorination

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