Palytoxin-Containing Aquarium Soft Corals as an Emerging Sanitary Problem

Abstract

Palytoxin (PLTX), one the most potent marine toxins, and/or its analogs, have been identified in different marine organisms, such as Palythoa soft corals, Ostreopsis dinoflagellates, and Trichodesmium cyanobacteria. Although the main concern for human health is PLTXs entrance in the human food chain, there is growing evidence of adverse effects associated with inhalational, cutaneous, and/or ocular exposure to aquarium soft corals contaminated by PLTXs or aquaria waters. Indeed, the number of case reports describing human poisonings after handling these cnidarians is continuously increasing. In general, the signs and symptoms involve mainly the respiratory (rhinorrhea and coughing), skeletomuscular (myalgia, weakness, spasms), cardiovascular (electrocardiogram alterations), gastrointestinal (nausea), and nervous (paresthesia, ataxia, tremors) systems or apparates. The widespread phenomenon, the entity of the signs and symptoms of poisoning and the lack of control in the trade of corals as aquaria decorative elements led to consider these poisonings an emerging sanitary problem. This review summarizes literature data on human poisonings due to, or ascribed to, PLTX-containing soft corals, focusing on the different PLTX congeners identified in these organisms and their toxic potential.

Human Poisoning from Marine Toxins: Unknowns for Optimal Consumer Protection

“…With molecular weights in the order of 2700 Da, palytoxins have one of the more complex structures described to date ( Figure 5 ). More than 25 analogs have been reported including PLTX, 42-hydroxy PLTX (2 isomers), homoPLTX, bishomoPLTX, deoxiPLTX, neoPLTX, iso PLTX, isobaricPLTX, ovatoxins-a to -k, ostreocins-B and -D, and mascarenotoxins-a and -b [ 210 , 211 , 212 ].…”

“…Palytoxins are produced by soft corals of the genera Palythoa , Zoanthus and Parazoanthus , by planktonic and benthic dinoflagellates of the genus Ostreopsis , and by cyanobacteria of the genus Trichodesmium [ 210 ]. Although initially palytoxins were described in corals from tropical waters, currently this toxin class is distributed worldwide.…”

“…The consequences of palytoxin toxicity may be life threatening mainly by ingestion or inhalation [ 222 , 223 , 224 , 225 ]. A few cases of intoxication due to ingestion of PLTX-contaminated seafood (fish or crustaceans) in tropical and subtropical areas have been published, some of them with a fatal endpoint [ 210 , 222 , 226 , 227 ]. However, occurrence may be higher than reported because confirmation of PLTX presence in the leftovers is not usually performed after foodborne intoxication.…”

Comparison of Strategies to Overcome Drug Resistance: Learning from Various Kingdoms

“…However, no transporter-related gene has been described. Other polyether ladder toxins are palytoxin [ 106 ] from dinoflagellates, soft corals, and cyanobacteria; and ostreocin from dinoflagellate Ostreopsis siamensis [ 107 ]. Predators such as a starfish ( Acanthaster planci ) and fish ( Chaetodon species) feed on the Palythoa colonies and accumulate high toxin concentrations in their organs in its active form.…”

Marine Neurotoxins: a Double-edged Sword in Food Industry and Brain Research

“…The toxins vary from small molecules to peptides, and display unique chemical and biological features of scientific interest. Due to environmental change and pollutions, possibly for the purpose of surviving, there are more neurotoxins released by marine organisms [1] . The released neurotoxins are harmful for human and animals that eat them.…”