Perception and description of New World non-human primates in the travel literature of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries: a critical review

Abstract

The current work presents the results of a review of most of the European diaries and travel chronicles containing reports of New World non-human primates dating from the discovery of America in 1492 until the end of the sixteenth century. We report the integral texts translated into English of these literary sources, giving a critical interpretation from a historical and scientific point of view. We note the ways these primates were perceived and described, with attention to the most important characteristics that were highlighted by the first explorers. Ethnotaxonomy and vernacular names used to designate non-human primates are also provided. This new body of knowledge, based largely on empirical reports full of details and first-hand observations, emerged as the first nucleus in the natural history of Neotropical Primates.

A Landscape without Nonhuman Primates? The Case of the Barbary Macaque, Macaca sylvanus, (Linnaeus, 1758) and Its Interaction with Humans throughout Recorded Time

“…The European cultural assimilation of exotic animals was reflected in the entire cultural medium of Early modern Europe, in particular among figurative arts and literature. The massive importation of African and Neotropical primates and the knowledge acquired on these animals through the reports of travelers and missionaries, contributed to the gradual change of primate perception and lore in Europe (Veracini 2011;Veracini and Teixeira 2017). The many different iconographic meanings and lore of Renaissance monkeys' depictions, denote a changing conception of these animals: from negative and evil creature to a symbolic example of freedom (e.g., Durer, The Dance of Apes), and to a great array of different meanings related to the contexts in which the primate is inserted (Veracini 2011).…”

“…The territory was famous in antiquity for caring for and venerating monkeys, but later became a trading spot of these animals, as we have seen. Therefore, the Portuguese of the 15th and 16th century used this word to name all kinds of monkeys (Veracini and Teixeira 2017). One of Aldrovandi's watercolors (see Tavole Animali, vol.…”

Links between the discovery of primates and anatomical comparisons with humans, the chain of being, our place in nature, and racism

“…Interestingly, despite these highly different and conflicting ideas about the place of humans in nature, the popular views about nonhuman primates in Europe during the rise of Christianity until the last centuries of the middle ages were more constant in the sense that they were generally more negative than they had been before, or for that matter than they were at any time in most other regions of the globe (e.g., Corbey, ; Groves, ; Morris, ; Sorenson, ; Veracini & Teixeira, ). As it happens in many cases, including in cases of racism against other human groups (e.g., Bancel, David, & Thomas, ; Gould, ), these negative views were in great part related to the lack of physical proximity between the people defending them and the subjects of their negative comments.…”

“…Of course, there had been comparisons between nonhuman primates and Non‐European humans much before the 18th century, including, strikingly, even comparisons between small/sized New World monkeys such as spider monkeys and human ethnic groups native to the West Coast of Africa, for example, by Oviedo in the 16th century (Veracini & Teixeira, ). Also, although this is often neglected in the literature, during the Middle Ages various Muslim scholars have also compared certain human groups with nonhuman primates and even explicitly stated that humans derived from other primates (e.g., Malik, Ziermann, & Diogo, ; Montagu, ).…”

“…angels), than there are beneath; we being in degrees of perfection much more remote from the infinite Being of God, than we are from the lowest state of being" (Lovejoy, 1936, p. 190). showing the internal organs of these monkeys on top and the monkeys on a domesticated background on the bottom to reinforce the idea of human hegemony that was shared by many scholars and painters in the 17th century; for more details see text (copyright expired; freely available and adapted from Perrault, 1676) Interestingly, despite these highly different and conflicting ideas about the place of humans in nature, the popular views about nonhuman primates in Europe during the rise of Christianity until the last centuries of the middle ages were more constant in the sense that they were generally more negative than they had been before, or for that matter than they were at any time in most other regions of the globe (e.g., Corbey, 2005;Groves, 2008;Morris, 2013;Sorenson, 2009;Veracini & Teixeira, 2016). As it happens in many cases, including in cases of racism against other human groups (e.g., Bancel, David, & Thomas, 2014;Gould, 1981), these negative views were in great part related to the lack of physical proximity between the people defending them and the subjects of their negative comments.…”