Performance in Planning: Processes, Requirements, and Errors

Abstract

Planning is not only an aspect of our day-to-day lives, it represents a critical aspect of performance on many high-level tasks. Although few of us would dispute the need for planning, the psychology of planning remains relatively undeveloped. With this point in mind, the intent in the present article was to review the available literature on planning. The authors begin by examining alternative models of planning and delineating their implications for performance. Subsequently, the findings obtained in various studies of planning are reviewed with respect to 8 key questions ranging from when planning is useful to how errors in planning should be minimized. The implications of current answers to these questions are discussed in terms of research needs and development of a more comprehensive theoretical understanding of performance in planning.

A taxonomy of prospection: Introducing an organizational framework for future-oriented cognition

“…For intended behaviors to be carried out in an effective manner, plans are often necessary. Although various works have defined the concept of planning (65)(66)(67), most definitions commonly conform to the notion of a plan as "a predetermination of a course of action aimed at achieving some goal" (65). Here, we focus on the nature of plans that are aimed at achieving goals in relation to specific autobiographical and more general or abstract contexts and the extent to which other modes of future-oriented cognition may factor into the planning process.…”

“…Indeed, the broader literature on planning does not generally distinguish between episodic and semantic planning (review in ref. 66) or the extent to which the two may work together in particular contexts (e.g., retirement planning) (79), and research along these lines has the potential to answer novel questions regarding individual differences in planning ability. For example, are people generally good planners, or can someone be a good semantic planner but a poor episodic planner and vice versa?…”

Strategy Planning in Simultaneous Interpreting -- with Beijing Historical and Cultural Speeches as Examples

“…[7] "...planning begins with environmental monitoring and needs assessment, followed by generation and prioritization of applicable goals. With goal identification, it becomes possible to identify the key steps and relevant contingencies needed to formulate a prototype plan.…”

“…[7: 214] It is psychological concept which, according to research, "can have a pervasive impact on performance, influencing not only the course of action pursued but also other, more subtle aspects of performance such as learning, motivation, and teamwork". [7] [6] [13] [18] And planning is "an inherently adaptive activity, one more likely to promote than inhibit flexible reactions to a changing environment" [7] [5], instead of an inhibiting factor to make flexible adjustment for high-level performance. [7] [14] That means that planning is aimed to better performance and it is inherently adaptive and flexible, which is in line with the nature of simultaneous interpreting where constant adjustment is needed as the interpreter deals with the unexpected for a fair amount of time in the practice.…”

“…[7] [6] [13] [18] And planning is "an inherently adaptive activity, one more likely to promote than inhibit flexible reactions to a changing environment" [7] [5], instead of an inhibiting factor to make flexible adjustment for high-level performance. [7] [14] That means that planning is aimed to better performance and it is inherently adaptive and flexible, which is in line with the nature of simultaneous interpreting where constant adjustment is needed as the interpreter deals with the unexpected for a fair amount of time in the practice. "Planning, in fact, appears to influence performance in five ways: (a) It contributes to more effective problem solving; (b) it promotes learning; (c) it enhances motivation; (d) it facilitates adaptation; and (e) it enhances coordination."…”