Pesticides Used in South American GMO-Based Agriculture

Crop proximity index for monitoring of peri-urban land use in agro-industrial crop regions

“…We also believe that the CPI index provides the possibility of obtaining exploratory data, necessary in the context of lack of information on the degree of exposure of urban populations to agro-industrial activity. As detailed above, there is strong evidence that inhabitants living in agro-industrial regions in Argentina would be exposed through multiple pathways to direct or indirect contact with pesticides or other agricultural chemicals ( Alonso et al., 2018 ; Aparicio et al., 2013 ; Bonansea et al., 2018 ; De Gerónimo et al., 2014 ; Etchegoyen et al., 2017 ; Hunt et al., 2017 ; López et al., 2012 ; Mendez et al., 2017 ; Mugni et al., 2011 ; Peluso et al., 2014 ; Primost et al., 2017 ; Solis et al., 2017 ). In addition, the two most commonly used herbicides in this type of transgenic crops, glyphosate and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, were classified as “probable carcinogen” and “possibly carcinogen” in humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, for their genotoxic activity and oxidative stress ( Guyton et al., 2015 ; Loomis et al., 2015 ).…”

“…United States, Brazil and Argentina are the three main crop-producing countries using genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in the world, with over 139 million hectares planted annually in recent years ( Slater and Holtslander, 2015 ). For this type of crop the ever-increasing use of the amount of pesticides generates growing concern among the population and governments in different parts of the world due to the numerous evidence of their negative effects on health ( Aiassa et al., 2009 ; Benítez-Leite et al., 2009 ; Bernardi et al., 2015 ; Gómez-Barroso et al., 2016 ; Guyton et al., 2015 ; Loomis et al., 2015 ; López et al., 2012 ; Mendez et al., 2017 ; Singh et al., 2018 ; Swanson et al., 2014 ; Tsatsakis et al., 2017 ) and the environment ( Aizen et al., 2009 ; Alonso et al., 2018 ; Guida-Johnson and Zuleta, 2013 ; Piquer-Rodríguez et al., 2018 ; Primost et al., 2017 ; Singh et al., 2018 ; Tsatsakis et al., 2017 ; Zaady et al., 2018 ).…”

“…The agro-industrial model, in many instances, takes place very close to densely populated cities, exposing the people who live in these areas to the possible pesticide contamination ( Aiassa et al., 2009 ; Etiennot and Piazza, 2010 ; López et al., 2012 ; Primost et al., 2017 ; Singh et al., 2018 ; Soo-Jeong et al., 2011 ; Trajkovska et al., 2009 ; Vida and Moretto, 2007 ). This exposure occurs because there are multiple pathways of contact with pesticides or their residues: off-target spray drift, volatilization, drag by wind or rain, soil erosion, leaching, runoff and atmospheric drift ( Alonso et al., 2018 ; Deziel Nicole et al., 2015 ; Garcerá et al., 2017 ; Mendez et al., 2017 ; Mugni et al., 2011 ; Primost et al., 2017 ; Singh et al., 2018 ; Zaady et al., 2018 ).…”

“…In this context, numerous investigations in Argentina have shown that pesticides used by the agro-industrial model of GMO are transported long distances, are found in urban areas, do not degrade easily (they are pseudo-persistent), contaminate water, soil and air ( Alonso et al., 2018 ; Aparicio et al., 2013 ; Bonansea et al., 2018 ; De Gerónimo et al., 2014 ; Etchegoyen et al., 2017 ; Hunt et al., 2017 ; López et al., 2012 ; Mendez et al., 2017 ; Mugni et al., 2011 ; Peluso et al., 2014 ; Primost et al., 2017 ; Solis et al., 2017 ).…”

Deleterious Effects of Banned Chemical Pesticides on Human Health in Developing Countries

“…Regarding human health, exposure to different banned chemical pesticides may lead to consequent intoxication symptoms as a result of cellular, biochemical, and genetic effects, that is, congenital malformation, neurochemical and behavioral dysfunctions among others [27]. In developing countries, such as India, it was documented various negative effects resulted from human exposure to pesticides, that is, neurological, respiratory, dermal, and reproductive effects in addition to the impact on general health [28].…”