Physiological and molecular sex differences in human skeletal muscle in response to exercise training

Abstract

Sex differences in exercise physiology, such as substrate metabolism and skeletal muscle fatigability, stem from inherent biological factors, including endogenous hormones and genetics. Studies investigating exercise physiology frequently include only males or do not take sex differences into consideration. Although there is still an underrepresentation of female participants in exercise research, existing studies have identified sex differences in physiological and molecular responses to exercise training. The observed sex differences in exercise physiology are underpinned by the sex chromosome complement, sex hormones and, on a molecular level, the epigenome and transcriptome. Future research in the field should aim to include both sexes, control for menstrual cycle factors, conduct large‐scale and ethnically diverse studies, conduct meta‐analyses to consolidate findings from various studies, leverage unique cohorts (such as post‐menopausal, transgender, and those with sex chromosome abnormalities), as well as integrate tissue and cell‐specific ‐omics data. This knowledge is essential for developing deeper insight into sex‐specific physiological responses to exercise training, thus directing future exercise physiology studies and practical application.

Effects of an Omega-3 Supplemented, High-Protein Diet in Combination with Vibration and Resistance Exercise on Muscle Power and Inflammation in Old Adults: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

“…Although our study is likely underpowered to detect sex-specific intervention effects, significant effects on muscle parameters and inflammation were only observed in men. Underlying mechanisms for sex-specific differences are complex and still under investigation, but are presumably attributed to sex-related genetic differences, concomitant hormonal milieu [ 35 ], and immune response [ 36 ], which also persist at older age. Furthermore, men exhibit a higher amount of type 2 muscle fibres and motor units [ 35 ], which result in greater strength and increased neuromuscular activation, i.e., muscle power.…”

The Effect of Pedaling at Different Cadence on Attentional Resources

“…Third, we were unable to assess hormonal levels. In previous studies, it was shown that the female menstrual cycle can influence both attentional and motor performance (Johnston and Wang, 1991;Landen et al, 2021). Moreover, arousal is notably regulated by the progesterone and estrogen activity (Lusk et al, 2017).…”

Comparison of various indices for predicting sarcopenia and its components in patients receiving peritoneal dialysis

“…The MAMC is an indicator of the muscle mass of the upper extremities, and a close association between the MAMC and HGS may be expected. However, women have a limited muscle capacity compared to men, and strength in women is closely influenced by other factors, such as muscle quality or neural factors [27][28][29][30][31][32] . Body circumferences cannot estimate muscle quality or neural factors.…”