Plant species on salt-affected soil at Cheyenne Bottoms, Kansas

Produced water's impact on soil properties: Remediation challenges and opportunities

“…In brine‐contaminated soils, a number of indirect and direct processes play a role in impeding seed germination and plant establishment. Indirect effects, such as physical changes to soil structure including salt crust formation, dispersion, and hardsetting, can significantly reduce seed germination rates and the chances of plant establishment (Aschenbach & Kindscher, 2006; Leskiw et al., 2012; Qadir et al., 2007). These effects on soil structure inhibit the growth and elongation of the radical, epicotyl, and hypocotyl of newly germinated seeds (Aschenbach & Kindscher, 2006; Mullins et al., 1990; Qadir, Steffens, Yan, & Schubert, 2003; Shainberg, Warrington, & Rengasamy, 1990).…”

“…In sodic and saline–sodic soils, various halophytes have been shown to accumulate significant amounts of Na in the vacuoles of leaf and stem tissues in an effort to maintain the osmotic gradient between the soil solution and the plant (Ke‐Fu, 1991; Ashraf and Harris, 2004; Flowers & Colmer, 2008; Grieve et al., 2012; Manouski & Kalogerakis, 2011). Through the harvest and disposal of the aboveground biomass, this process has been used to decrease the overall concentration of Na in the soil profile (Keiffer & Ungar, 2001; Keiffer & Ungar, 2002; Qadir et al., 2000; Qadir et al., 2003; Qadir et al., 2007; Young et al., 2011).…”

“…Over time, continual salt accumulation and precipitation form soil crusts (Keiffer & Ungar, 2002; Mullins, MacLeod, Northcote, Tisdall, & Young, 1990; Qadir, Oster, Schubert, Noble, & Sahrawat, 2007). Crusting of the soil surface results in a reduction of infiltration rates, as well as gas diffusion into and out of the soil, which may decrease plant growth and increase soil erosion potential (Aschenbach & Kindscher, 2006; Leskiw, Sedor, Welsh, & Zeleke, 2012; Young et al., 2011).…”

“…Indirect effects, such as physical changes to soil structure including salt crust formation, dispersion, and hardsetting, can significantly reduce seed germination rates and the chances of plant establishment (Aschenbach & Kindscher, 2006; Leskiw et al., 2012; Qadir et al., 2007). These effects on soil structure inhibit the growth and elongation of the radical, epicotyl, and hypocotyl of newly germinated seeds (Aschenbach & Kindscher, 2006; Mullins et al., 1990; Qadir, Steffens, Yan, & Schubert, 2003; Shainberg, Warrington, & Rengasamy, 1990). In addition, these structural changes reduce the ability of water and gases to infiltrate into the soil, resulting in either a lack of soil water for seed imbibition or the prolonged inundation of the soil surface, both of which severely restrict plant establishment and survival (Grieve, Grattan, & Maas, 2012; Qadir et al., 2007; Shainberg & Letey, 1984).…”

“…The ability of a seed or plant root to uptake water is based on the establishment and maintenance of an osmotic gradient with the soil solution (Lauchli & Epstein, 1990). In soils exhibiting high salt concentrations, the osmotic potential of the soil solution becomes increasingly negative, resulting in the reversal of this osmotic relationship (Aschenbach & Kindscher, 2006; Lauchli & Epstein, 1990). This change in hydraulic gradient severely limits the imbibition of soil water by both plant roots and seeds, often resulting in induced seed dormancy (i.e., delayed seed germination) and the expression of drought‐like symptoms in plants at later growth stages (Keiffer & Ungar, 2002; Lauchli & Epstein, 1990; Ungar, 1978).…”