“…Moreover, restrictive language policies, like those governing curriculum and instruction for multilingual learners in Massachusetts, create a hostile environment for students and teachers who face sanctions for using languages other than English (e.g., Arellano-Houchin, Flemenco, Merlos, & Segura, 2001;Cammarota & Aguilera, 2012;Valdez, 2001). Researchers have also documented how English-only policies have created opportunities for school personnel to overlook multilingual learners and prematurely push them into mainstream courses with unprepared teachers (e.g, Gándara, 2000;Harper & de Jong, 2009;Mora, 2000;Reeves, 2004). This gap between research-based best practices and current state policy in Massachusetts limits the educational opportunities of multilingual learners and legally sanctions race and languagebased discrimination.…”