Potential Toxic Levels of Cyanide  in Almonds (<i>Prunus amygdalus</i>), Apricot Kernels (<i>Prunus armeniaca</i>), and Almond Syrup

Chaouali, Nadia; Gana, Inès; Amira, Dorra; Khelifi, Fathia; Nouioui, Anouer; Masri, Wafa; Belwaer, Ines; Ghorbel, H.; Hédhili, Abderrazek

doi:10.1155/2013/610648

Cited by 59 publications

(37 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…As a result, a small amount of Cbl in the blood stream is present in the Cn-Cbl form that binds cyanide residues. Cyanide is normally present in trace amounts in foods such as cassava, bitter almonds and apricot kernels (responsible for the bitter taste) [44]. H-Cbl is a form of cobalamin highly represented as a physiological intermediate [35].…”

Section: Chemical Properties Of Cobalamin and Vitamin Activitymentioning

confidence: 99%

Vitamin B12 among Vegetarians: Status, Assessment and Supplementation

Rizzo¹,

et al. 2016

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Cobalamin is an essential molecule for humans. It acts as a cofactor in one-carbon transfers through methylation and molecular rearrangement. These functions take place in fatty acid, amino acid and nucleic acid metabolic pathways. The deficiency of vitamin B12 is clinically manifested in the blood and nervous system where the cobalamin plays a key role in cell replication and in fatty acid metabolism. Hypovitaminosis arises from inadequate absorption, from genetic defects that alter transport through the body, or from inadequate intake as a result of diet. With the growing adoption of vegetarian eating styles in Western countries, there is growing focus on whether diets that exclude animal foods are adequate. Since food availability in these countries is not a problem, and therefore plant foods are sufficiently adequate, the most delicate issue remains the contribution of cobalamin, which is poorly represented in plants. In this review, we will discuss the status of vitamin B12 among vegetarians, the diagnostic markers for the detection of cobalamin deficiency and appropriate sources for sufficient intake, through the description of the features and functions of vitamin B12 and its absorption mechanism.

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Section: Chemical Properties Of Cobalamin and Vitamin Activitymentioning

confidence: 99%

Vitamin B12 among Vegetarians: Status, Assessment and Supplementation

Rizzo¹,

et al. 2016

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“…All these seeds contain the CNGs amygdalin and prunasin. While the level of cyanogens is rather low in the sweet variety of almonds (about 25 mg CN/kg), bitter almonds and apricots contain cyanogens at levels ranging from about 500 to more than 1,000 mg cyanide/kg (Chaouali et al., ). Marzipan is exclusively produced from the kernels of sweet almonds which do not need detoxification due to their low cyanogen content, which is further decreased by the manufacturing process (blanching, chopping and grinding with sugar into almond flour).…”

Section: Assessmentmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evaluation of the health risks related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides in foods other than raw apricot kernels

Schrenk¹,

Bignami²,

Bodin³

et al. 2019

EFS2

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In 2016, the EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) published a scientific opinion on the acute health risks related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides (CNGs) in raw apricot kernels in which an acute reference dose (ARfD) of 20 lg/kg body weight (bw) was established for cyanide (CN). In the present opinion, the CONTAM Panel concluded that this ARfD is applicable for acute effects of CN regardless the dietary source. To account for differences in cyanide bioavailability after ingestion of certain food items, specific factors were used. Estimated mean acute dietary exposures to cyanide from foods containing CNGs did not exceed the ARfD in any age group. At the 95th percentile, the ARfD was exceeded up to about 2.5-fold in some surveys for children and adolescent age groups. The main contributors to exposures were biscuits, juice or nectar and pastries and cakes that could potentially contain CNGs. Taking into account the conservatism in the exposure assessment and in derivation of the ARfD, it is unlikely that this estimated exceedance would result in adverse effects. The limited data from animal and human studies do not allow the derivation of a chronic health-based guidance value (HBGV) for cyanide, and thus, chronic risks could not be assessed.

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“…Other authors refer that significant differences in the content of amygdalin, and consequently of HCN, in apricot kernels are due to geographical and climate characteristics. Chaouali et al (2013) noted that a dry climate and intense sunlight promote cyanogenesis, and that differences in amygdalin concentration may be also ascribable to different agricultural practices. Finally, it has been reported that the content of amygdalin may also vary according to the age of the plant at harvest time: amygdalin gradually increases during plant growth, reaching the highest concentrations at maturity (Chaouali et al, 2013).…”

Section: Previously Reported Occurrence Datamentioning

confidence: 99%

Acute health risks related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides in raw apricot kernels and products derived from raw apricot kernels

Alexander

Barregård²,

Bignami³

et al. 2016

EFS2

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Amygdalin is the major cyanogenic glycoside present in apricot kernels and is degraded to cyanide by chewing or grinding. Cyanide is of high acute toxicity in humans. The lethal dose is reported to be 0.5-3.5 mg/kg body weight (bw). An acute reference dose (ARfD) of 20 lg/kg bw was derived from an exposure of 0.105 mg/kg bw associated with a non-toxic blood cyanide level of 20 micro mol (lM), and applying an uncertainty factor of 1.5 to account for toxicokinetic and of 3.16 to account for toxicodynamic inter-individual differences. In the absence of consumption data and thus using highest intakes of kernels promoted (10 and 60 kernels/day for the general population and cancer patients, respectively), exposures exceeded the ARfD 17-413 and 3-71 times in toddlers and adults, respectively. The estimated maximum quantity of apricot kernels (or raw apricot material) that can be consumed without exceeding the ARfD is 0.06 and 0.37 g in toddlers and adults, respectively. Thus the ARfD would be exceeded already by consumption of one small kernel in toddlers, while adults could consume three small kernels. However, consumption of less than half of a large kernel could already exceed the ARfD in adults.

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Potential Toxic Levels of Cyanide in Almonds (Prunus amygdalus), Apricot Kernels (Prunus armeniaca), and Almond Syrup

Cited by 59 publications

References 15 publications

Vitamin B12 among Vegetarians: Status, Assessment and Supplementation

Vitamin B12 among Vegetarians: Status, Assessment and Supplementation

Evaluation of the health risks related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides in foods other than raw apricot kernels

Acute health risks related to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides in raw apricot kernels and products derived from raw apricot kernels

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