Primary and secondary control strategies for managing health and financial stress across adulthood.

Abstract

The study examined the relation among three types of control strategies (persistence, positive reappraisals, lowering aspirations) and subjective well-being across adulthood (N -3,490). Specifically, the authors investigated whether age-adapted endorsement of control strategies is conducive to subjective well-being if individuals experience health or financial stress. The results reveal an overall enhanced reliance on control strategies in older as compared with younger adults. In addition, persistence showed a stronger positive relation to subjective well-being in young adulthood as compared with old age. In midlife and old age, positive reappraisals had a stronger positive relation to subjective well-being than persistence. Lowering aspirations was negatively related to subjective well-being, independent of age.Age differences in the relation of control strategies to subjective well-being were particularly salient in individuals who faced either health or financial stress.This study addressed the endorsement and predictive value of individuals' control strategies across the lifespan. Specifically, we examined age differences in the relation between control strategies and subjective well-being. Moreover, we investigated whether age-adapted investment of control strategies is particularly beneficial for individuals who face specific types of stressors (health stress and financial stress). We proposed that individuals' endorsement of primary and secondary control is functionally tailored to age-graded constraints and opportunities for development. Primary control strategies are directed at attaining personal goals and overcoming obstacles (Heckhausen & Schulz, 1995;Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982). Primary control strategies should thus be most efficient at younger ages when life-course related opportunities are favorable for a wide range of developmental pathways. At older ages, by contrast, individuals have less control over intended outcomes of behavior; the opportunities for goal attainment in many domains (e.g., health, career, family) have become sharply reduced. Therefore, we proposed that in older adults selfprotective secondary control (e.g., positive reappraisals) is more necessary and thus predictive of successful development. Finally, we hypothesized that age differences in the effectiveness of control

Executive Self, Self-Esteem, and Negative Affectivity: Relations at the Phenotypic and Genotypic Level.

“…Persistence in Goal Striving consisted of five items reflecting persistence in the face of obstacles. Theoretically, this measure assesses use of a primary control strategy to change the external world to fit with own needs and desires (Wrosch et al, 2000). Reappraisal included four items reflecting compensatory control strategies that protect the self (i.e., secondary control; Wrosch et al, 2000).…”

“…Control beliefs refer to people's conviction that they can control many aspects of their lives (mastery) and their confidence in effecting change (self-efficacy or agency; Bandura, 1986;Lachman & Weaver, 1998). Changing the environment to suit the self (primary control) and changing the self to fit the environment (secondary control) are strategies on which people rely to meet control motivations (Brandstädter, Rothermund, & Schmitz, 1998;Rothbaum, Weisz, & Snyder, 1982;Wrosch, Heckhausen, & Lachman, 2000). Secondary control overlaps with the broader concept of self-regulation, which refers more generally to attempts to alter the self to meet a desired outcome Tangney, Baumeister, & Boone, 2004).…”

Associations between financial stress and interpersonal events: A daily diary study of middle-aged adults and their life circumstances.

“…Historical evidence suggests that age-related differences in exposure to financial stress may exist, attributable to differential levels in career attainment and the typically higher STRESS PROLIFERATION DIARY STUDY 5 level of financial challenge faced by younger adults versus those in middle or older adulthood (Wrosch, Heckhausen, & Lachman, 2000). This model of age-related stress exposure supposes that financial worries ameliorate after adults reach a point of financial stability, typically in middle adulthood, with the establishment of a stable career (Wrosch et al, 2000). The frequency of exposure to life stress also appears to decline as individuals age (Zautra, Finch, Reich, & Guamaccia, 1991).…”

Desenvolvimento de uma medida de controle primário e secundário para idosos

“…É preciso que ele acredite que possa realizar a tarefa e decida fazê-la. Inúmeros estudos envolvendo população idosa atestaram associação entre percepção de controle e independência na velhice (Neri, 2006), qualidade de vida, bem estar ou satisfação com a vida (Haynes, Heckhausen, Chipperfield, Perry, & Newall, 2009;Heckhausen, Wrosch, & Fleeson, 2001;Heeps, 2000;Lang & Heckhausen, 2001;Stocks, April, & Lynton, 2012;Windsor, 2009;Wrosch, Heckhausen, & Lachman, 2000) e saúde (Chipperfield et al, 2012;Chipperfield, Perry, Bailis, Ruthig, & Loring, 2007;Chiu & Spencer, 2010;Haynes et al, 2009;Wahl, Schilling, & Becker, 2007;Widyarini, 2012;Windsor, 2009;Wrosch, Schulz, & Heckhausen, 2002;Wrosch, Schulz, Miller, Lupien, & Dunne, 2007). O conceito de controle assume diferentes denominações na literatura (como senso de controle, percepção de controle, lócus de controle, controle pessoal, controle primário e controle secundário) e faz parte de uma ampla área de estudos na psicologia, denominada de percepção de controle.…”

“…3) Controle secundário seletivo: refere-se às "representações internas" (Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996, p. 710) relevantes do ponto de vista da motivação para a persecução de uma meta escolhida. "É dirigido ao mundo interno do indivíduo para promover o compromisso da vontade para com uma meta escolhida" (Heckhausen, 1997, p. 177 (Heckhausen, 1997;Heckhausen et al, 2010;Lang & Heckhausen, 2001;Wrosch et al, 2000), havendo um redirecionamento do controle primário para metas apropriadas à idade (Heckhausen, 1997;Heckhausen et al, 2001Heckhausen et al, , 2010Wrosch & Heckhausen, 1999) e uma tendência a buscar controle secundário (Heckhausen, 1997;Heckhausen et al, 2010;Peng & Lachman, 1994). Assim, recursos pessoais como experiências passadas de sucesso, comparação social, flexibilidade no ajustamento de metas e reavaliações positivas, por exemplo, se tornam muito importantes no sentido de manter o senso de estar no comando (Heckhausen et al, 2010;Schulz & Heckhausen, 1996).…”