Prostate Cancer in Primary Care

Abstract

Prostate cancer is a common malignancy seen worldwide. The incidence has risen in recent decades, mainly fuelled by more widespread use of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing, although prostate cancer mortality rates have remained relatively static over that time period. A man’s risk of prostate cancer is affected by his age and family history of the disease. Men with prostate cancer generally present symptomatically in primary care settings, although some diagnoses are made in asymptomatic men undergoing opportunistic PSA screening. Symptoms traditionally thought to correlate with prostate cancer include lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS), such as nocturia and poor urinary stream, erectile dysfunction and visible haematuria. However, there is significant crossover in symptoms between prostate cancer and benign conditions affecting the prostate such as benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH) and prostatitis, making it very challenging to distinguish between them on the basis of symptoms. The evidence for the performance of PSA in asymptomatic and symptomatic men for the diagnosis of prostate cancer is equivocal. PSA is subject to false positive and false negative results, affecting its clinical utility as a standalone test. Clinicians need to counsel men about the risks and benefits of PSA testing to inform their decision-making. Digital rectal examination (DRE) by primary care clinicians has some evidence to show discrimination between benign and malignant conditions affecting the prostate. Patients referred to secondary care for diagnostic testing for prostate cancer will typically undergo a transrectal or transperineal biopsy, where a number of samples are taken and sent for histological examination. These biopsies are invasive procedures with side effects and a risk of infection and sepsis, and alternative tests such as multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (mpMRI) are currently being trialled for their accuracy and safety in diagnosing clinically significant prostate cancer.

Geospatial analysis, web-based mapping and determinants of prostate cancer incidence in Georgia counties: evidence from the 2012-2016 SEER data

“…unemployed are critical risk factors for prostate cancer disease. For example, the finding that the number of persons aged 65 years or older increased the risk of the disease supports previous studies that reported that prostate cancer risk increases with age, and with incidence rate over 60% [31][32][33].…”

Potential Treatment of Breast and Lung Cancer Using Dicoma anomala, an African Medicinal Plant

“…Despite advancements in the treatment of cancer and research, prostate cancer deaths had risen to more than 300,000 deaths worldwide. The risk factors related to one developing prostate cancer include age and family history [ 83 ]. When compared to other countries, prostate cancer is more diagnosed in American and European men [ 84 ].…”

Prediction of Prostate Cancer using Ensemble of Machine Learning Techniques

“…Statistics shows that almost one-third of men over 50 years old will be diagnosed with prostate cancer during their life time [7]. Author in [8], defined prostate cancer as the cancer that occurs in the prostate, a small walnut-shaped gland in men that produces the seminal fluid that nourishes and transports sperm. It is recommended that men have a prostate examination by age 50 [9].…”

“…, to partition D into subsets ( 1 , 2 , 3 … . , ) using information gain presented in equation 7and (8).…”