Public Health and Solitary Confinement in the United States

Abstract

The history of solitary confinement in the United States stretches from the silent prisons of 200 years ago to today's supermax prisons, mechanized panopticons that isolate tens of thousands, sometimes for decades. We examined the living conditions and characteristics of the populations in solitary confinement. As part of the growing movement for reform, public health agencies have an ethical obligation to help address the excessive use of solitary confinement in jails and prisons in accordance with established public health functions (e.g., violence prevention, health equity, surveillance, and minimizing of occupational and psychological hazards for correctional staff). Public health professionals should lead efforts to replace reliance on this overly punitive correctional policy with models based on rehabilitation and restorative justice.

Effects of isolation and confinement on humans-implications for manned space explorations

“…Moreover, the circadian heart rate and HRV were significantly disrupted and circadian misalignment was observed due to the lack of natural daylight (62). A well-balanced day/night cycle, however, with adequate sleep/rest and activity phases properly synchronized to the circadian rhythm is critical for keeping the crew healthy (5,6,9). During long-term confinement, the percentage of sleep and rest phases increased and sleep quality and sleep-wake periodicity were disrupted resulting in a decreased performance of participants (5, 6), which was paralleled by reduced positive emotion ratings (67).…”

“…Sharing of specialized tasks and the division of labor into different professions catering to the individuals' talents have enabled the development of multifaceted well-functioning modern societies. Isolation and exclusion from a social group as well as confinement have been forms of punishment since the early ages and continue to be the case in societies and prisons all over the world (9). Nevertheless, voluntary long-term confinement as a pair or with a group of people can cause strains on individuals.…”

A Review of Opportunities to Improve the Health of People Involved in the Criminal Justice System in the United States

“…Conditions that have been assessed for health impact include crowding, staffing, and the conditions of confinement (e.g., sanitation, infection control) (5, 118); disciplinary policies and practices (e.g., solitary confinement) (24,36); inmate victimization (122); opportunities for physical activity and recreation (54,113); access to healthful and appealing food (17); opportunities for social interactions with family, other inmates, and service providers (48); and availability of educational, employment, and health promotion programs (30,62). These studies show that jail and prison conditions influence a wide variety of health outcomes, but few studies have assessed the impact of changing these conditions; in addition, few provide evidence that public officials and policy makers can use to compare the costs and benefits of changing any particular condition.…”

Solitary confinement, post-release health, and the urgent need for further research

“…2 A growing body of research is shaping our understanding of the acute physical, psychological, and emotional effects of solitary confinement at the individual and population levels. 3,4 Currently, there is little research investigating the lasting effects of solitary confinement after people leave prison. Experience of solitary confinement during recent incarceration has been found to be associated with post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms after release 5 and with increased likelihood of reincarceration.…”