Queuing, takeovers, and becoming a fat cat: Long‐term data reveal two distinct male spatial tactics at different life‐history stages in Namibian cheetahs

Abstract

In mammals, male spatial tactics and sociality can be predicted from the size, degree of overlap and ease of defense of female individual or group home ranges (HRs). An exception is apparently the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) for which studies from East Africa describe a socio‐spatial organization where resident males defend small territories, which cover a portion of large ranges of solitary females, and non‐territorial males (floaters) roam over vast areas whilst queuing for access to territories. Most studies from southern Africa did not report the existence of territorial males and floaters, but a system with both males and females roaming over vast areas with overlapping HRs. Here, we derive and test predictions from previously described spatial tactics in felids by studying the movements, behavior, and/or physical characteristics of 164 radio‐collared Namibian cheetahs on commercial farmland from 2002 to 2014. The results demonstrate the existence of male territory holders and floaters and a, by mammalian standards, unique sociality in that commonly groups of males, sometimes solitary males defended small areas partially overlapping with large ranges of solitary females. When a solitary male or a group of males switched between both tactics, floating usually preceded territory holding, suggesting that both spatial phases are equivalent to distinct life‐history stages. Switching from roaming as a floater to holding a territory was also associated with an increase in body mass index (BMI) and a change in the observed behavior of animals captured in traps when approached by humans. Both BMI and this behavior are therefore reliable, quick biomarkers of an individual's space use tactic and life‐history stage. We elaborate the implications of this socio‐spatial organization for models of ecological movements and on conflict mitigation measures such as translocations or the planning of future protected areas. We suggest that such implications also apply to other species where one sex exhibits two space use tactics and two sets of range sizes.

Trends in cheetah Acinonyx jubatus density in north‐central Namibia

“…A similar phenomenon was observed in a 9‐year study of cheetahs in the Kalahari in which most males were transients (Mills & Mills, 2017). The high proportion of transients raises the possibility that either resident individuals were dominant, thus preventing home range takeover (Caro, 1994) due to numeracy advantage (coalitions versus singleton transients) (Caro, 1994; Fabiano, 2013; Melzheimer et al, 2018), or that this population is part of a larger population. The latter is likely as the study area is surrounded by farms where cheetahs are known to occur but could not be surveyed due to limited access (Marker, Fabiano, & Nghikembua, 2008; Marker‐Kraus et al, 1996).…”

Coping with intrasexual behavioral differences: Capture–recapture abundance estimation of male cheetah

“…Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus is one species which exhibits intrasexual behavioral differences of adult males after they dispersed from their natal home range and established in a new area (Caro, ; Melzheimer et al., ). Adult males are either territory holders occupying small territories (in Namibia: 379 ± 161 km 2 [mean ± standard deviation]) or floaters ranging over large areas (in Namibia: 1,595 ± 1,131 km 2 , Melzheimer et al., ). Territorial males mark and defend their small territory, while floaters roam over much larger areas which they do not actively defend (Melzheimer et al., ).…”

“…Adult males are either territory holders occupying small territories (in Namibia: 379 ± 161 km 2 [mean ± standard deviation]) or floaters ranging over large areas (in Namibia: 1,595 ± 1,131 km 2 , Melzheimer et al., ). Territorial males mark and defend their small territory, while floaters roam over much larger areas which they do not actively defend (Melzheimer et al., ). Territorial male cheetahs mark at prominent landmarks (Caro, ), which in southern Africa are typically trees with low, sloping branches (Marker‐Kraus, Kraus, Barnett, & Hurlbut, ).…”

“…In Namibia, territorial males marked such trees in approximately 94% of their visits to these trees with urine or feces. In contrast, floaters were never or rarely recorded scent marking at such trees and, rather, visit trees to sniff markings of territorial males (Melzheimer et al., ; Wachter et al., ). Territory ownership is usually the final stage in the life history of a male cheetah; however, not all individuals will become territorial, some will remain floaters throughout their lives (Melzheimer et al., ).…”

“…In contrast, floaters were never or rarely recorded scent marking at such trees and, rather, visit trees to sniff markings of territorial males (Melzheimer et al., ; Wachter et al., ). Territory ownership is usually the final stage in the life history of a male cheetah; however, not all individuals will become territorial, some will remain floaters throughout their lives (Melzheimer et al., ). Such differences in the spatial ecology of adult males are likely to result in differential use of a survey area, thus creating heterogeneity in capture probability.…”