In mammals, male spatial tactics and sociality can be predicted from the size, degree of overlap and ease of defense of female individual or group home ranges (HRs). An exception is apparently the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) for which studies from East Africa describe a socio‐spatial organization where resident males defend small territories, which cover a portion of large ranges of solitary females, and non‐territorial males (floaters) roam over vast areas whilst queuing for access to territories. Most studies from southern Africa did not report the existence of territorial males and floaters, but a system with both males and females roaming over vast areas with overlapping HRs. Here, we derive and test predictions from previously described spatial tactics in felids by studying the movements, behavior, and/or physical characteristics of 164 radio‐collared Namibian cheetahs on commercial farmland from 2002 to 2014. The results demonstrate the existence of male territory holders and floaters and a, by mammalian standards, unique sociality in that commonly groups of males, sometimes solitary males defended small areas partially overlapping with large ranges of solitary females. When a solitary male or a group of males switched between both tactics, floating usually preceded territory holding, suggesting that both spatial phases are equivalent to distinct life‐history stages. Switching from roaming as a floater to holding a territory was also associated with an increase in body mass index (BMI) and a change in the observed behavior of animals captured in traps when approached by humans. Both BMI and this behavior are therefore reliable, quick biomarkers of an individual's space use tactic and life‐history stage. We elaborate the implications of this socio‐spatial organization for models of ecological movements and on conflict mitigation measures such as translocations or the planning of future protected areas. We suggest that such implications also apply to other species where one sex exhibits two space use tactics and two sets of range sizes.

Human–wildlife conflicts occur worldwide. Although many nonlethal mitigation solutions are available, they rarely use the behavioral ecology of the conflict species to derive effective and long-lasting solutions. Here, we use a long-term study with 106 GPS-collared free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) to demonstrate how new insights into the socio-spatial organization of this species provide the key for such a solution. GPS-collared territory holders marked and defended communication hubs (CHs) in the core area of their territories. The CHs/territories were distributed in a regular pattern across the landscape such that they were not contiguous with each other but separated by a surrounding matrix. They were kept in this way by successive territory holders, thus maintaining this overdispersed distribution. The CHs were also visited by nonterritorial cheetah males and females for information exchange, thus forming hotspots of cheetah activity and presence. We hypothesized that the CHs pose an increased predation risk to young calves for cattle farmers in Namibia. In an experimental approach, farmers shifted cattle herds away from the CHs during the calving season. This drastically reduced their calf losses by cheetahs because cheetahs did not follow the herds but instead preyed on naturally occurring local wildlife prey in the CHs. This implies that in the cheetah system, there are “problem areas,” the CHs, rather than “problem individuals.” The incorporation of the behavioral ecology of conflict species opens promising areas to search for solutions in other conflict species with nonhomogenous space use.

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Monitoring animal populations in changing environments is crucial to wildlife conservation and management, but restrictions in resources are a recurring problem for wildlife managers and researchers throughout Africa. Land-useinduced shrub encroachment in Kalahari savannah rangelands has led to fragmentation of the landscape. Mammalian carnivores are particularly vulnerable to local extinction in fragmented landscapes, but their low numbers and their often nocturnal and secretive habits make them difficult to monitor. In this study, we tested the applicability of a passive tracking method and compared two measurement methods and index calculations for monitoring small carnivores across a grazing gradient in the southern Kalahari. During the four years of monitoring in a five-year period, we used the knowledge of indigenous Khoisan Bushmen for the identification of carnivore tracks on 640 sand transects (5 m × 250 m). Our results showed that this simple and inexpensive observation method enabled detailed monitoring of 10 small carnivore species across the grazing gradient. A binary index calculated an index based on presence/absence of a species' tracks on each transect, whereas the track intrusion index used the number of track intrusions to each transect for each species in its calculations. For less common species, the two indices were similar in trend and magnitude, because the number of intrusions to each transect was typically 1 or 0. Usually, the two indices showed relatively strong correlations. However, species with patchy distributions of higher numbers presented difficulties for the binary index to monitor trends, but not for the track intrusion index.

Although the effects of grazing-induced savannah degradation on animal diversity are well documented, knowledge of how they affect space use or responding behaviour remains poor. In this study, we analysed space use of the spotted sand lizard (Pedioplanis l. lineoocellata) in degraded versus nondegraded habitats of southern Kalahari savannah habitats. Lizards were radio tracked, daily movement distances recorded and home range sizes calculated. In degraded Kalahari savannah habitats where plant diversity and perennial grass cover are low but shrub cover high, P. lineoocellata moves larger distances (40.88 ± 6.42 m versus 27.43 ± 5.08 m) and occupies larger home ranges (646.64 ± 244.84 m 2 versus 209.15 ± 109.84 m 2 ) than in nondegraded habitats (high plant diversity, high perennial grass cover and low shrub cover). We assume that this increase in daily movement distances and home range sizes is a behavioural plasticity to limited food resources in degraded savannah habitats. Although P. lineoocellata is able to adjust to resource-poor savannah habitats, the increase in the lizard's movement activities is likely to result in a higher predation risk. This is supported by the lower availability of protective vegetation i.e. perennial grass cover. Hence, we conclude that despite behavioural plasticity of P. lineoocellata, overgrazing has a severe negative impact on the space use of P. lineoocellata. RésuméBien que les effets de la dégradation de la savane due au pâturage sur la diversité animale soient bien documentés, on sait toujours peu de choses sur la façon dont ils affectent l'utilisation de l'espace ou les comportements de réponse. Dans cette étude, nous avons analysé l'utilisation de l'espace du lézard des sables tacheté Pedioplanis l. lineoocellata, dans des habitats de savane dégradés ou non du sud du Kalahari. Des lézards furent suivis par radio, les distances parcourues par jour furent enregistrées, et l'on a calculé la taille des domaines vitaux. Dans les habitats de savane dégradés du Kalahari, où la diversité végétale et la couverture herbacée pérenne sont faibles mais la couverture arbustive élevée, Pedioplanis lineoocellata couvre de plus grandes distances (40.88 ± 6.42 m versus 27.43 ± 5.08 m) et occupe de plus vastes domaines vitaux (646.64 ± 244.84 m 2 versus 209.15 ± 109.84 m 2 ) que dans les habitats non dégradés (grande diversité végétale, forte couverture herbacée pérenne et faible couverture arbustive). Nous supposons que cette augmentation de la distance parcourue chaque jour et de la taille des domaines vitaux est le résultat d'une plasticité comportementale face à des ressources alimentaires limitées dans les habitats dégradés de savane. Bien que P. lineoocellata soit capable de s'adapter à des habitats de savane pauvres en ressources, l'augmentation des déplacements du lézard est susceptible d'entraîner un plus grand risque de prédation. Cette hypothèse est confortée par la faible disponibilité de végétation protectrice, c.-à-d. d'une couverture herbacée pérenne. Dès lors, nous concluons...