Race-related Socialization, Motivation, and Academic Achievement: A Study of Black Youths in Three-Generation Families

Bowman, Phillip D.; Howard, Cleopatra S.

doi:10.1016/s0002-7138(09)60438-6

Cited by 438 publications

(561 citation statements)

References 7 publications

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“…[55][56][57][58] Black parents provide more race socialization messages to Black boys compared to Black girls. 59,60 This study expanded the existing understanding regarding the interaction between race and gender, and their influence on shaping exposure and vulnerability to racial bias. Environmental stressors such as discrimination may have larger effects on depression of Black males than they do on Black women.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 87%

Interaction Between Race and Gender and Effect on Implicit Racial Bias Against Blacks

Assari

2018

Int J Epidemiol Res

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Background and aims: Exposure and vulnerability to racial discrimination is not solely a function of race but the intersection of race and gender, with Black men experiencing more discrimination than Black women. This phenomenon is explained by the subordinate male target hypothesis, suggesting that majority men specifically target men of color. If that is the case, implicit bias would be most common among the majority men. The current cross-sectional study investigated race by gender differences in implicit bias against Blacks. Methods: Data came from Harvard University's Project Implicit, an online survey, conducted during 2006-2016. Data included 444 422 implicit association tests (IATs) which were taken by Blacks (n=56 384) and Whites (n=388 038). Using IAT, the dependent variable was implicit bias against Blacks. Independent variables were race, gender, and age. Using SPSS, linear regressions were utilized to test the additive and multiplicative effects of race and gender on implicit bias against Blacks. Results: Race (b = 0.39; 95% CI = 0.38-0.39) and gender (b = 0.05; 95% CI = 0.05-0.05) were associated with IAT score suggesting higher implicit bias against Blacks among Whites and men. A significant interaction was found between race and gender (b = 0.05; 95% CI = 0.04-0.07), suggesting the highest level of implicit bias against Blacks among White men. Conclusion: It is not solely race and gender but their intersection that shapes social distribution of implicit bias against Blacks. This finding extends the previous literature showing that not solely race or gender but their intersection influences exposure to discrimination.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 87%

Interaction Between Race and Gender and Effect on Implicit Racial Bias Against Blacks

Assari

2018

Int J Epidemiol Res

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“…Realistic appraisals of race relations and recognition of the potential for experiencing racial discrimination are critical in adopting effective ways to cope with the inevitable encounters with prejudice that most African Americans experience. Bowman and Howard (1985) and Sedlacek and Brooks (1976) each found that an awareness of racial discrimination in society was related to better academic and social outcomes for African American youth. Further research is necessary to determine what constitutes optimal awareness and appraisals of race relations for healthy functioning.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Because racial socialization is a vital process within most African American families (Bowman & Howard, 1985;Stevenson, 1994), the inclusion of family members in violence preventive interventions is critical to the success of conveying consistent messages about coping with race relations from the family's perspective. Involving family members directly or indirectly is an important strategy for future violence prevention interventions with African American youth.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Further, Sellers et al (2003) found that racial centrality was both a risk factor for experiencing racial discrimination and a protective factor in buffering the negative impact of experiencing racial discrimination on psychological distress. In educational contexts, an awareness of the existence of racial discrimination in society (i.e., public regard) has been related to better social and academic outcomes for African American youth and young adults (Bowman & Howard, 1985;Sedlacek & Brooks, 1976). These findings offer evidence that examining multiple aspects of group identification may be helpful in understanding how racial or ethnic identity may influence psychosocial and behavioral outcomes.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Racial Discrimination and Racial Identity as Risk or Protective Factors for Violent Behaviors in African American Young Adults

Caldwell

Kohn-Wood

Schmeelk-Cone

et al. 2004

American J of Comm Psychol

270

223

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This study examined the influences of racial discrimination and different racial identity attitudes on engaging in violent behavior among 325 African American young adults. The contributions of racial discrimination and racial identity attitudes in explaining violent behavior during the transition into young adulthood while controlling for the influences of prior risk behaviors at ninth grade were examined separately for males and females. In addition, the buffering effects of racial identity attitudes on the relationship between racial discrimination and violent behavior were tested. Results indicated that experience with racial discrimination was a strong predictor of violent behavior, regardless of gender. The centrality of race for males and the meaning others attribute to being Black for both males and females were moderators of the influence of racial discrimination on violent behavior. KEY WORDS:African American adolescents; racial discrimination; gender differences; protective factors; racial identity; violence.Most studies find that about 30-40% of male and 15-30% of female youths report having committed violent acts by age 17 (USDHHS, 2001). Extensive evidence has accumulated on the effects of specific psychosocial and environmental risk factors for the perpetration of violent behaviors. Youth violence in the United States has been associated consistently with aggressiveness, antisocial behavior, and poverty during childhood, substance use, antisocial peer groups, parent disciplinary practices, parents with favorable attitudes toward violence, family functioning, academic failure, and being male (Blaske, Borduin, Henggeler, & Mann, 1989;Farrington & Loeber, 2000;Florsheim, Tolan, & Gorman-Smith, 1996;Gorman-Smith, Tolan, Zelli, & Huesmann, 1996;Gorman-Smith, Tolan, Loeber, & Henry, 1998;Guerra, Husemann, Tolan, Van Acker, & Eron, 1995; Hawkins et al., 2000;Henggeler, 1989; Henry, Tolan, & Gorman-Smith, 2001;Kosterman et al., 2001;Loeber & Stouthamer-Loeber, 1998; Tolan & Lorion, 1988;USDHHS, 2001). Yet, the majority of youth at risk for committing violent acts do not engage in violent behaviors (Zimmerman, Steinman, & Rowe, 1998).The Surgeon General's (USDHHS, 2001) recent report on youth violence concludes that risk factors do not operate in isolation and that they can be buffered by protective factors. Several individual characteristics (e.g., self-concept, intolerant attitude toward deviance, commitment to school) and environmental conditions (e.g., supportive family and school environments, resource rich neighborhoods) have been proposed to be protective against youth violence (Hawkins et al., 1998;Kosterman et al., 2001; Caldwell, Kohn-Wood, Schmeelk-Cone, Chavous, and Zimmerman Paschall & Hubbard, 1998;Resnick et al., 1997). This suggests the importance of an ecological framework in explaining these behaviors. The ecological model posits that youth violence is a function of individual psychosocial characteristics, social influences, and societal constraints (Guerra et al. 1995;Paschall & Hubb...

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“…Thus, there are several other dimensions of child mental health and clinical diagnoses that were not measured. Since cultural pride type variables have been linked to better child mental health in past research (Bowman & Howard, 1985;Caldwell, Zimmerman, Bernat, Sellers, & Notaro, 2002;Caughy, O'Campo, Randolph, & Nickerson, 2002;McAdoo, 1985;Sanders-Thompson, 1994), it is possible that parents with moderate levels of belief in cultural pride reinforcement did not bring children to services because these children had better mental health in dimensions that were not measured in the current study. This possibility is consistent with Frabutt et al's (2002) findings linking moderate levels of parent belief in racial socialization to preferred family outcomes.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 89%

The Effect of Racial Socialization on Urban African American Use of Child Mental Health Services

Bannon

Cavaleri

Rodriguez

et al. 2008

Social Work in Mental Health

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Race-related Socialization, Motivation, and Academic Achievement: A Study of Black Youths in Three-Generation Families

Cited by 438 publications

References 7 publications

Interaction Between Race and Gender and Effect on Implicit Racial Bias Against Blacks

Interaction Between Race and Gender and Effect on Implicit Racial Bias Against Blacks

Racial Discrimination and Racial Identity as Risk or Protective Factors for Violent Behaviors in African American Young Adults

The Effect of Racial Socialization on Urban African American Use of Child Mental Health Services

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