Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model.

Abstract

Various authors have noted that interethnic group and intraethnic group racism are significant stressors for many African Americans. As such, intergroup and intragroup racism may play a role in the high rates of morbidity and mortality in this population. Yet, although scientific examinations of the effects of stress have proliferated, few researchers have explored the psychological, social, and physiological effects of perceived racism among African Americans. The purpose of this article was to outline a biopsychosocial model for perceived racism as a guide for future research. The first section of this article provides a brief overview of how racism has been conceptualized in the scientific literature. The second section reviews research exploring the existence of intergroup and intragroup racism. A contextual model for systematic studies of the biopsychosocial effects of perceived racism is then presented, along with recommendations for future research.

Racial Discrimination and Racial Identity as Risk or Protective Factors for Violent Behaviors in African American Young Adults

“…National violence prevention policies should focus on reducing opportunities for discriminatory practices. The present study adds to a growing body of literature implicating the deleterious effects of racial discrimination on a variety of outcomes including physical health (Anderson, 1989;Smedley et al, 2002;Williams et al, 1999) and mental health (Clark et al, 1999;Dion, Dion, & Pak, 1992;Sellers et al, 2001). Racial discrimination appears to be one of many complex factors that help to explain why some African American youth may continue to respond to stressful events with violence in the transition into young adulthood.…”

“…Experiences with racial discrimination during a time when a number of psychological and social changes occur can be daunting. Youth transitioning into young adulthood who perceive that society devalues their racial group may act out by engaging in violent behavior as a way to cope with stressful racial experiences.Experiences of racial discrimination and racism have not been explicitly examined in studies of violence among African American youth despite a growing literature supporting the deleterious mental and physical effects of discriminatory experiences on African American adults (Anderson, 1989;Bowen-Reid & Harrell, 2002;Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999;Dion, Dion, & Pak, 1992;Miller & Kaiser, 2001;Smedley, Stith, & Nelson, 2002;Williams et al, 1999). Among ethnic minority youth, determining the relationship between cultural factors as risk for or protective against socially problematic behaviors is an emerging research area that should recognize that perceptions of racial discrimination is important in explaining youth violent behavior.…”

Perceived racial/ethnic discrimination and psychological outcomes among adult international adoptees in Finland: Moderating effects of social support and sense of coherence.

“…Because gender, socioeconomic status and complexion are suggested to be moderators between race-related stress and mental health symptoms (e.g. Clark et al, 1999;Greer, Laseter, & Asiamah, 2009), future studies should consider also these factors among adult international adoptees.…”

Threatened by the unexpected: Physiological responses during social interactions with expectancy-violating partners.

“…These data may also be relevant to how discrimination affects physical and mental health of minorities and other stigmatized groups (Clark, Anderson, Clark, & Williams, 1999;Krieger, 2000;Link & Phelan, 2001). We have found majority group members exhibit threat responses, less positive behavioral responses, and performance impairments when interacting with counterstereotypical or atypical group members.…”