Radiation effects on two-dimensional materials

Abstract

The effects of electromagnetic and particle irradiation on two‐dimensional materials (2DMs) are discussed in this review. Radiation creates defects that impact the structure and electronic performance of materials. Determining the impact of these defects is important for developing 2DM‐based devices for use in high‐radiation environments, such as space or nuclear reactors. As such, most experimental studies have been focused on determining total ionizing dose damage to 2DMs and devices. Total dose experiments using X‐rays, gamma rays, electrons, protons, and heavy ions are summarized in this review. We briefly discuss the possibility of investigating single event effects in 2DMs based on initial ion beam irradiation experiments and the development of 2DM‐based integrated circuits. Additionally, beneficial uses of irradiation such as ion implantation to dope materials or electron‐beam and helium‐beam etching to shape materials have begun to be used on 2DMs and are reviewed as well. For non‐ionizing radiation, such as low‐energy photons, we review the literature on 2DM‐based photo‐detection from terahertz to UV. The majority of photo‐detecting devices operate in the visible and UV range, and for this reason they are the focus of this review. However, we review the progress in developing 2DMs for detecting infrared and terahertz radiation.

Total Ionizing Dose Hardened and Mitigation Strategies in Deep Submicrometer CMOS and Beyond

“…Such mechanisms are more pronounced in ambient conditions, due to the large percentage of potential doping species that exist [69]. Postirradiation, secondary electrons, and protons that are released through Compton scattering processes have the potential to induce defects [70]. As a result, to understand the TID response and implement any hardening solutions, we need to be able to discriminate between intrinsic effects taking place in the 2-D channel and extrinsic effects taking place in the rest of the device, such as the dielectric layers.…”

“…As a result, to understand the TID response and implement any hardening solutions, we need to be able to discriminate between intrinsic effects taking place in the 2-D channel and extrinsic effects taking place in the rest of the device, such as the dielectric layers. This is done in different ways, both analytically from the extracted device characteristics [71] and with the help of supplementary measurements, such as Raman spectroscopy [70]. When materials such as graphene and carbon nanotubes are used for the fabrication of TFTs, their postirradiation response shares many common features with 2-D and 1-D channel transistors.…”

“…CNT NVFETs, however, with similar counterclockwise hysteresis in their characteristics exhibited an increase in the memory window with increasing total dose [81]. Generally, due to the sensitivity of graphene to dielectric and substrate charge accumulation effects, it is thought to be more appropriate for ionizing radiation sensor applications [70], although, a tunable TID response scheme has been proposed in [82] using hybrid organic-inorganic dielectrics of various thickness and composition, such as zirconia-based self-assembled nanodielectric. These schemes take advantage of the competing electron and hole charge accumulation to achieve stable device characteristics, much like the SWCNT TFTs with SiON dielectrics mentioned earlier.…”

Fabrication of Sub‐Micrometer‐Sized MoS2 Thin‐Film Transistor by Phase Mode AFM Lithography

“…In order to ensure the alignment accuracy, the size shrinking of target 2DMs is limited at a few to tens of microns in the devices fabrication process. Besides, the damage or contamination caused by high‐energy exposure has a distinct impact on the performance of 2DMs devices …”

“…Besides, the damage or contamination caused by high-energy exposure has a distinct impact on the performance of 2DMs devices. [12] Atomic force microscopy (AFM) lithography, using a nano-tip as both imaging and scratching tool, can read topography with sub-nanometer sensitivity without causing exposure of the resist. With the advantages of being relatively low cost, having a high level of flexibility on material compatibility and capability of operation in ambient conditions, [13][14][15][16][17] AFM lithography is an ideal nanofabrication approach with high resolution and controllability.…”