Rapidly diminishing mangrove forests in Myanmar (Burma): a review

Improved estimates of mangrove cover and change reveal catastrophic deforestation in Myanmar

“…Rubber plantations are expected to further expand given the Myanmar government's plans to increase rubber acreage and production capacity, as well as the availability of suitable vacant land area in the rubber-growing regions (Vagneron et al 2017). The systematic transitions of mangrove losses/gains to/from water bodies suggest a potentially burgeoning threat of aquaculture development in all sub-national units, previously only speculated on by previous studies in Myanmar (Oo 2002, Giri et al 2008, Maung 2012, Zöckler et al 2013, Richards and Friess 2015, Gaw et al 2018, Veettil et al 2018. Expansion of aquaculture began in the late 1990s (Maung 2012) and although the total area converted remains low, future expansion is expected owing to increased international opportunities afforded by access to international markets .…”

“…The Forest Department operated from 1972-2002 without a mangrove forest management working plan, but nevertheless implemented a quota system to meet revenue targets for fuelwood extraction and charcoal production, which greatly facilitated mangrove degradation (Oo 2002). Other broad underlying drivers of mangrove loss identified for Myanmar include increasing population density (Richards and Friess 2015), the low economic valuation attributed to mangrove resources compared to other non-mangrove resources (Oo 2002), and Myanmar's heavy dependency on biofuel-based energy needs as some mangrove species are widely used for firewood/charcoal due to high caloric content and prolonged burning capability (Veettil et al 2018).…”

“…This is not surprising given that retired aquaculture ponds may have little alternative use other than mangrove restoration (Stevenson et al 1999). Community-based mangrove reforestation programmes have been promoted by both government and non-government agencies, and have targeted abandoned agricultural land or degraded mangrove habitats (Zöckler et al 2013, Veettil et al 2018; these programmes have been buttressed by multiple pieces of legislation that protected Myanmar's mangroves and reinforced the role of local communities in forest management through participatory forest management bodies (e.g. 1992 Forest Law 1995 Forest Act, Locally Owned Forest Plot Directives, 1995 Policy of Myanmar Forest) (Oo 2002).…”

“…Aside from providing a fuller picture of mangrove deforestation dynamics, gross land cover change analysis facilitated the identification of land cover transitions, which as a result, revealed the complete dynamics of mangrove cover change, including the 'destination' classes for mangrove loss as well as the 'source' classes for mangrove gain. This allowed us to quantify the counterbalancing effect of mangrove restoration efforts, which led to mangrove gains in Ayeyarwady and Rakhine (Maung 2012, Aung et al 2013, Zöckler et al 2013, Veettil et al 2018 (table 1). In this case, while reforestation and natural regeneration were documented as contributing to positive gains in mangrove cover, it highlights the critical need to further invest in management strategies that aim to further increase gross mangrove gains.…”

“…Mangrove reforestation was the main proximate cause of the identified systematic transitions associated with mangrove gains. Restoration programmes occurred in abandoned agricultural land, such as rice paddies and aquaculture ponds in Ayeyarwady and Rakhine (figures 4 and 5)(Maung 2012, Aung et al 2013, Zöckler et al 2013, Veettil et al 2018.…”