Raptors and primate evolution

Abstract

Most scholars agree that avoiding predators is a central concern of lemurs, monkeys, and apes. However, given uncertainties about the frequency with which primates actually become prey, the selective importance of predation in primate evolution continues to be debated. Some argue that primates are often killed by predators, while others maintain that such events are relatively rare. Some authors have contended that predation's influence on primate sociality has been trivial; others counter that predation need not occur often to be a powerful selective force. Given the challenges of documenting events that can be ephemeral and irregular, we are unlikely ever to amass the volume of systematic, comparative data we have on such topics as feeding, social dynamics, or locomotor behavior. Nevertheless, a steady accumulation of field observations, insight gained from natural experiments, and novel taphonomic analyses have enhanced understanding of how primates interact with several predators, especially raptors, the subject of this review.

The effects of body size, activity, and phylogeny on primate sleeping ecology

“…Sleeping during the day can be therefore extremely risky for primates, and it is not surprising that nocturnal primates use tree holes and nests more frequently and also tend to sleep longer (Nunn & Samson, 2018) than diurnal species. Yet, the use of these daytime shelters has not been generally acknowledged as an explicit anti‐raptor strategy (Mcgraw & Berger, 2013). Apart from reducing visibility to raptors and other predators during the day, small entrances—often too small for most predators—and sufficient depth can place the animals beyond the reach of most predators.…”

Testing the damage caused by a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) on a primate skull: A taphonomic case study of the bone damage observed after a simulated predatory attack

“…However, eagle attacks on primates have been described by many authors in Africa and South America (e.g., Adams & Williams, 2017;Barnett et al, 2015;Benchimol & Venticinque, 2010;Vasquez & Heymann, 2001). Although most of the cases that were studied focused on the way in which eagles capture primates rather than the injuries caused to the primates' bodies, some attempted to describe the eagle accumulations that were recovered from these areas to better define the origin of the accumulation in the archaeological record (Berger & McGraw, 2007;Gilbert, McGraw, & Delson, 2009;McGraw & Berger, 2013;McGraw, Cooke, & Shultz, 2006;Sanders, Trapani, & Mitani, 2003). Sanders et al (2003) described an accumulation produced by crowned eagle predation on monkeys from Kibale National Park (Uganda).…”

“…Even if the size of the macaque specimen described in the present work was not exactly the same, because it was that of a juvenile individual, its similar size, biological age and weight (~10–12 kg) make comparisons possible. The origin of the Taung child accumulation has been widely discussed in the scientific literature (e.g., Berger & Clarke, 1995, 1996; Berger & McGraw, 2007; Brain, 1981; Dart, 1926; Gilbert et al, 2009; McGraw et al, 2006; McGraw & Berger, 2013; McKee, 2001; Sanders et al, 2003). We do not intend to add more confusion to the subject but rather aim to provide new data when facing eagles' accumulation of bones.…”

“…We do not intend to add more confusion to the subject but rather aim to provide new data when facing eagles' accumulation of bones. Although an initial hypothesis suggested the intervention of mammalian carnivores, such as the leopard, for the accumulation of the Taung child (Brain, 1981), later research focused on the possibility that a raptor, probably the crowned eagle, predated it (Berger, 2006; Berger & Clarke, 1995; Berger & McGraw, 2007; McGraw et al, 2006; McGraw & Berger, 2013). To support this hypothesis, they provided evidence of accumulations that were generated by crowned eagles and compared their results with those obtained not only after the reanalysis of the Taung skull but also through the interpretation of the Taung faunal accumulation that was found in association with the skull.…”

Olive baboons' (Papio anubis) response towards crowned eagles (Stephanoaetus coronatus) at Lake Manyara National Park

“…Predation is seen as a powerful selective force that has shaped the behaviour of primates in many respects (van Schaik, 1983;Terborgh and Janson, 1986;Janson, 1992;Isbell, 1994) and raptors are known to be common predators of primates (Hart, 2000;Miller and Treves, 2011;McGraw and Berger, 2013). In Africa, one of the most reported aerial predators of primates is the crowned eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus ( Fig.…”