Rare Earths: Market Disruption, Innovation, and Global Supply Chains

Eggert, Roderick G.; Wadia, Cyrus; Anderson, Corby; Bauer, Diana; Fields, Fletcher; Meinert, Lawrence D.; Taylor, Patrick R.

doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-110615-085700

Cited by 105 publications

(82 citation statements)

References 30 publications

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“…At present, the number of minerals considered to be REE carriers of economic potential is above 200 [24]. The same minerals contain significant amounts of the naturally radioactive elements U and Th, which share similar geochemical characteristics with the REEs [25].…”

Section: Ree-bearing Phases and Radiological Implicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Potential for REE and Associated Critical Metals in Coastal Sand (Placer) Deposits of Greece: A Review

2019

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The rare earth elements (REEs) are characterized by the European Union (EU) as critical raw materials with a significant risk of supply because of their broad utility in both traditional and emerging technological applications. The growing demand for REE has caused a flurry in the search for new REE deposits in Europe and elsewhere in the world, and is also linked to rising exploitation efforts in a variety of geological settings. To this end, Greece appears to be a promising candidate to become a leading EU country in terms of REE by virtue of its natural endowment in sedimentary heavy mineral deposits (placers) along its long coastline. The present review focuses on the distribution, abundance, and bulk geochemistry of REEs and other critical metals (Ta, Nb, Co) associated with placer deposits of Greece, and specifically with geologically young heavy mineral sand accumulations developed proximal to felsic plutonic source rocks. These deposits are also enriched in the actinides uranium (U) and thorium (Th), as both of these metals are typically associated with REE-rich minerals such as xenotime, monazite, thorite, allanite, and zircon. Previous studies have employed a variety of analytical techniques down to nano-meter scale with the aim to elucidate the mineralogy and distribution of REE and associated actinides in Greek beach placers. In view of this mineralogically-intensive background, the present review focuses chiefly on bulk geochemical characteristics of the same deposits and the variations thereof between two major geographical regions (northern Greece, southern Aegean) and across individual placer occurrences within them. In this framework, we present comprehensive compositional comparisons between the different deposits, highlighting the geological sub-environments wherein they occur, their distinctive sources and geochemical signatures, and their potential economic significance in terms of REE and other critical metal enrichments where applicable.

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Section: Ree-bearing Phases and Radiological Implicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

The Potential for REE and Associated Critical Metals in Coastal Sand (Placer) Deposits of Greece: A Review

2019

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“…Rare Earths, sometimes called the vitamins of modern materials, captured public attention when their prices increased more than ten-fold in 2010 and 2011 (6,7) . As prices fell between 2011 and 2016, rare earths receded from public view-but less visibly they became a major focus of innovative activity in companies, government laboratories and universities.…”

Section: Rare Earthsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Critical Metals Research From Primary And Secondary Sources at KIEM

Anderson

2018

Int.J.Soc.Mater.Eng.Resour.

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Critical Metals have come to the forefront of global discussion in the past ten years. Most recently, the US DOI USGS has published a comprehensive study of Minerals currently deemed Critical to the Unites States (1). This book presents resource and geologic information on the following 23 mineral commodities currently among those viewed as important to the national economy and national security of the United States: antimony (Sb), barite (barium, Ba), beryllium (Be), cobalt (Co), fluorite or fluorspar (fl uorine, F), gallium (Ga), germanium (Ge), graphite (carbon, C), hafnium (Hf), indium (In), lithium (Li), manganese (Mn), niobium (Nb), platinum-group elements (PGE), rare-earth elements (REE), rhenium (Re), selenium (Se), tantalum (Ta), tellurium (Te), tin (Sn), titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), and zirconium (Zr). For a number of these commodities-for example, graphite, manganese, niobium, and tantalum-the United States is currently wholly dependent on imports to meet its needs. Of these the Rare Earths have globally received the vast amount of attention. Unfortunately, Criticality is considered both a subjective and localized phenomenon. The US DOE CMI program has further delineated those Critical Materials as a subset that are specifically crucial for Energy and that are largely produced as by products (2,3). Hence, different jurisdictions and countries have varying needs for and applications of various metals. That said, the defining aspect of Criticality is a demand situation coupled with limited availability of supply. Limited availability may be due to many factors and most often is based upon either resource scarcity or control of supply by a singular entity. More importantly, a critical lack of skilled talent or technology is clearly the current and long-term root of this issue (4,5). 2 THE KROLL INSTITUTE FOR EXTRACTIVE METALLURGY The Kroll Institute for Extractive Metallurgy, KIEM, was established in 1974 at the Colorado School of Mines in accordance with a bequest from William J. Kroll, world renowned extractive metallurgist best known for his inventions of processes for the production of titanium and zirconium. The fi nancial resources of Dr. Kroll ' s bequest were intended to provide for the establishment of a Center for Excellence in Extractive Metallurgy at the Colorado School of Mines. Since its inception, the Kroll Institute has provided financial support to both undergraduate and graduate students at CSM, many of whom, subsequently, have made important contributions, nationally and internationally, to the fi elds of mining, minerals, metals and advanced materials. Today, the mission of the Kroll Institute is to support the minerals, metals and materials industries through the following activities: Maintain expertise and research capabilities important to the minerals, metals and materials industries Perform cutting edge research Train process engineers for industry Develop short courses Develop specialty conferences The academic environment creates a unique opportunity to

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“…The value for these actors is to soundly manage the waste, particularly the mercury which is often pursuant to mandatory obligations and treatment requirements. Recycling of fluorescent lamps is not economically viable based on material value of the recycled materials alone, so the environmental and health benefits of treating the mercury drive voluntary initiatives as well as mandatory EPR legislation [40]. The risk object for the government in recycling lamps is the mercury in energy efficient lamps, while the public health and the environment comprise the main object at risk.…”

Section: Case 3: Ree Recycling Of End-of-life Lampsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Binnemans et al [35] cite the improvement of REE recycling as "an absolute necessity" for reasons of their supply risk, economic importance, and the "balance problem" and Binnemans [36] recommends legislative adaptation of recycling directives to account for minor metals. In light of a demonstrated potential for recovery of REE in anthropogenic deposits [37][38][39], the reason for low REE recycling rates is framed as "a lack of incentives" [37,[40][41][42]. Questions of risk and value have recently begun to be explored in relation to steel and REE respectively [43][44][45][46][47].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Governance and Risk–Value Constructions in Closing Loops of Rare Earth Elements in Global Value Chains

2017

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This article addresses a research gap on the challenges-specifically risk and value-connected to realizing the potential for closing loops for rare earth elements (REE). We develop an analytical framework from conceptual elements of the global value chain (GVC) framework and the relational theory of risk to examine several empirical REE industry cases for loop closure. The aim of the paper is to identify how risk-value relationships are constructed by different actors as governance structures form in transactions prior to price setting and how these have impacts on the closure of REE loops. Often, REE loops are not closed, and we find that constructions of the risk-value relationship by industrial actors and by government agencies are unstable as they pursue different motivations, consequently hindering REE loop closure in GVCs. In light of this, we propose that governments mediate against the construction of risk-value relationships by facilitating information on the characteristics of end-of-life materials that qualify these for re-entry into loops.

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Rare Earths: Market Disruption, Innovation, and Global Supply Chains

Cited by 105 publications

References 30 publications

The Potential for REE and Associated Critical Metals in Coastal Sand (Placer) Deposits of Greece: A Review

The Potential for REE and Associated Critical Metals in Coastal Sand (Placer) Deposits of Greece: A Review

Critical Metals Research From Primary And Secondary Sources at KIEM

Governance and Risk–Value Constructions in Closing Loops of Rare Earth Elements in Global Value Chains

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