Readers extract character frequency information from nonfixated-target word at long pretarget fixations during Chinese reading.

Abstract

We performed two eye movement studies to explore whether readers can extract character or word frequency information from nonfixated-target words in Chinese reading. In Experiments 1A and 1B, we manipulated the character frequency of the first character in a two-character target word and the word frequency of a two-character target word, respectively. We found that fixation durations on the pre-target words were shorter when the first character of a two-character target word was presented with high frequency. Such effects were not observed for word frequency manipulations of a two-character target word. In particular, further analysis revealed that such effects only occurred for long pre-target fixations. These results for character and word frequency manipulations were replicated in a within-subjects design in Experiment 2. These findings are generally consistent with the notion that characters are processed in parallel during Chinese reading. However, we did not find evidence that words are processed in parallel during Chinese reading.

Effects of adults aging on word encoding in reading Chinese: evidence from disappearing text

“…(If the output of encoding word n  + 1 is word-based, the reader should have no need to re-encode it when it is in the fixation frame.) Thus, the results of young adults when reading word n  + 1 disappearing text is consistent with the notion proposed by Li and his colleagues who argued that Chinese readers process characters in parallel during reading (Li, Rayner & Cave, 2009; Ma, Li & Rayner, 2015). …”

Wordn + 2 preview effects in three-character Chinese idioms and phrases

“…In a similar manner, character frequency might also influence the processing of words located in the parafovea. Ma, Li, & Rayner (2015) investigated how the properties of a parafoveal word influence the processing of the currently fixated word (a parafoveal-on-foveal effect); they manipulated both the frequency of the first character of and the whole of a two-character word in the parafovea. They found that the first character frequency-but not the whole word Thus, their results suggest that the characteristics of Chinese characters might be processed in parallel in the parafovea independently of the words they form.…”

Distributional analyses of word frequency effects in Chinese sentence reading and lexical decision tasks

“…In contrast, there are few studies using the ex‐Gaussian fitting technique in Chinese reading. In Chinese literature, Ma, Li, and Rayner () performed two experiments to explore whether Chinese readers could extract character or word frequency information from nonfixated‐target words in Chinese reading, and they found Chinese readers could only obtain character frequency information from nonfixated‐target words. Furthermore, they used the ex‐Gaussian fitting technique to fit eye fixation durations on the pretarget region, and the results showed that such parafoveal‐on‐foveal effects (i.e., the properties of a parafoveal word affect how long readers look at the currently fixated word, Kennedy, ) only occurred for long pretarget fixations.…”

“…Although the ex‐Gaussian function can be well fitted to eye fixation durations in Chinese reading (Ma, Li, & Rayner, ), it is unclear whether word frequency effects, in the distribution level, demonstrate the same way between Chinese and English reading. Even though there are no visual cues marking word boundaries and guiding Chinese readers for saccade‐target selection (Ma, Li, & Pollatsek, ), it is well established that fixation durations were modulated by inserting interword spaces between Chinese words (Bai et al, ; Ma, ).…”