Recent advances in nanoengineering cellulose for cargo delivery

Abstract

The recent decade has witnessed a growing demand to substitute synthetic materials with naturally-derived platforms for minimizing their undesirable footprints in biomedicine, environment, and ecosystems. Among the natural materials, cellulose, the most abundant biopolymer in the world with key properties, such as biocompatibility, biorenewability, and sustainability has drawn significant attention. The hierarchical structure of cellulose fibers, one of the main constituents of plant cell walls, has been nanoengineered and broken down to nanoscale building blocks, providing an infrastructure for nanomedicine. Microorganisms, such as certain types of bacteria, are another source of nanocelluloses known as bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), which benefit from high purity and crystallinity. Chemical and mechanical treatments of cellulose fibrils made up of alternating crystalline and amorphous regions have yielded cellulose nanocrystals (CNC), hairy CNC (HCNC), and cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) with dimensions spanning from a few nanometers up to several microns. Cellulose nanocrystals and nanofibrils may readily bind drugs, proteins, and nanoparticles through physical interactions or be chemically modified to covalently accommodate cargos. Engineering surface properties, such as chemical functionality, charge, area, crystallinity, and hydrophilicity, plays a pivotal role in controlling the cargo loading/releasing capacity and rate, stability, toxicity, immunogenicity, and biodegradation of nanocellulose-based delivery platforms. This review provides insights into the recent advances in nanoengineering cellulose crystals and fibrils to develop vehicles, encompassing colloidal *

Electrospun Nanocomposites Containing Cellulose and Its Derivatives Modified with Specialized Biomolecules for an Enhanced Wound Healing

“…In recent literature, nanocelluloses have not shown any toxicity at concentrations lower than 1 mg/mL; however, there are studies that reveal a concentration-dependent apoptotic toxicity of CNFs at 2-5 mg/mL. Additionally, anionic nanocelluloses, e.g., carboxymethylated CNF, have been reported to be more cytotoxic than cationic nanocelluloses, e.g., trimethylammonium-CNF [34]. Toxicity effects might arise from the diversity of chemical structures and properties between cellulose types and sources.…”

“…Its biocompatibility, nontoxicity, biodegradability, water absorption capacity, optical transparency, and good mechanical properties have attracted researchers from all fields. Indeed, its incorporation in electrospun nanocomposites has contributed significantly for the overall composite increased mechanical properties, namely Young's modulus and elongation at break [32][33][34].…”

Overview of Inexpensive Production Routes of Bacterial Cellulose and Its Applications in Biomedical Engineering

“…Chemical modification is performed to introduce some functional groups onto the BC surface to fine-tune its properties for a desired application. [45][46][47][48] In an attempt to enhance the rehydration properties of BC, citric acid was used as cross-linker to introduce carboxylic bridges within the BC fibril chains, which significantly improved not only the rehydration ability, but also the fibre porosity, suggesting its potential for biomedical application. 49…”

Bacterial Nanocellulose and Its Surface Modification by Glycidyl Methacrylate and Ethylene Glycol Dimethacrylate. Incorporation of Vancomycin and Ciprofloxacin

“…BNC can be endowed with antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activities by drug loading. Drug loading in BNC-based carriers includes physical absorption/adsorption and chemical conjugation [9]. BNC hydrogels can be fabricated using as low as 1% nanocelluloses, which may benefit from a large water content, that allows for the drugs to be loaded via diffusion and adsorption; however, the downside of this process is the prolonged loading time, which is not practical for clinical or industrial purposes.…”

“…For example, BNC has been saturated with the antibiotic fusidic acid [10] and tetracycline hydrochloride has been loaded on bacterial cellulose composite membranes for controlled release [11]. BNC can be addressed for the delivery of a broad range of bioactive cargos [9]. The antiseptic octenidine has been used to provide active wound dressings based on bacterial nanocellulose [12].…”