Red-Blue Pebble Game

Abstract

The red-blue pebble game was formulated in the 1980s [14] to model the I/O complexity of algorithms on a two-level memory hierarchy. Given a directed acyclic graph representing computations (vertices) and their dependencies (edges), the red-blue pebble game allows sequentially adding, removing, and recoloring red or blue pebbles according to a few rules, where red pebbles represent data in cache (fast memory) and blue pebbles represent data on disk (slow, external memory). Specifically, a vertex can be newly pebbled red if and only if all of its predecessors currently have a red pebble; pebbles can always be removed; and pebbles can be recolored between red and blue (corresponding to reading or writing data between disk and cache, also called I/Os or memory transfers). Given an upper bound on the number of red pebbles at any time (the cache size), the goal is to compute a game execution with the fewest pebble recolorings (memory transfers) that finish with pebbles on a specified subset of nodes (outputs get computed). In this paper, we investigate the complexity of computing this trade-off between red-pebble limit (cache size) and number of recolorings (memory transfers) in general DAGs. First we prove this problem PSPACE-complete through an extension of the proof PSPACEhardness of black pebbling complexity [13]. Second, we consider a natural restriction on the red-blue pebble game to forbid pebble deletions, or equivalently, forbid discarding data from cache without first writing it to disk. This assumption both simplifies the model and immediately places the trade-off computation problem within NP. Unfortunately, we show that even this restricted version is NP-complete. Finally, we show that the trade-off problem parameterized by the number of transitions is W[1]-hard, meaning that there is likely no algorithm running in a fixed polynomial for constant number of transitions.

The Red-Blue Pebble Game on Trees and DAGs with Large Input

“…They usually have a special structure (for example layered or planar), symmetries (large automorphism groups, i.e., they have many vertices that "look equal"), and other properties (for example regular or bounded in-degree) that can make it easier to find solutions. Hence, [12] raised the question whether for the red-blue pebble game there exist FPT algorithms for restricted classes of DAGs (such as bounded width graphs).…”