Reduced frequency of knowledge of results enhances motor skill learning.

Abstract

Relative frequency of knowledge of results (KR) is the proportion of KR presentations to the total number of practice trials. Contrary to predictions from most traditional motor learning perspectives (e.g., Adams, 1971;Schmidt, 1975; Thorndike, 1927), recent evidence suggests that, compared with practice in 100% relative frequency conditions, practice with lower relative frequencies may be beneficial to longer-term retention and learning, but detrimental to practice performance. Three experiments are reported in which the effects of variations in acquisition KR relative frequency were examined. Experiment 1 showed that a markedly reduced KR relative frequency during practice was as effective for learning as measured by various retention tests, compared with a 100% KR practice condition. In Experiments 2 and 3, when the scheduling of KR was manipulated so that the number of KR trials was systematically lowered across practice, a reduced average relative frequency enhanced learning as measured by a delayed no-KR retention test (Experiment 2) and a retention test in which KR was provided (Experiment 3). Results are inconsistent with predictions from an acquisition-test specificity hypothesis and conventional motor learning theories and thus suggest a revision in the principles governing the role of KR for motor learning. Empirical support is provided for the KR guidance hypothesis (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984) and for various encoding-retrieval operations associated with spaced retrieval practice. Possible learning strategies invoked by relative frequency and other related practice variations are discussed with respect to response consistency and the development of intrinsic error detection mechanisms.

Complimentary lower-level and higher-order systems underpin imitation learning

“…The finding of similar performance effects for the reduced-frequency and 25 high-frequency KR groups is consistent with previous studies (Schmidt, et al, 1989;Swinnen, 1990; 26 Winstein & Schmidt, 1990). Indeed, no difference between the groups in an immediate retention test 27 would be expected because the beneficial effects of reduced frequency KR are not typically observed 28 until performance is measured in a 24-hour delayed retention test (Schmidt, et al, 1989; Swinnen, 1 1990; Winstein & Schmidt, 1990). This does not mean that higher-order cognitive processes 2 associated with representing movement time were not developed by the reduced-frequency KR 3 protocols.…”

“…The retention effects are 24 suggested to be underpinned by learning processes that are developed during no-KR trials (e.g., inter-25 trial processing) where performers operationalise (Salmoni, et al, 1984;Schmidt, et al, 1989; 26 Winstein & Schmidt, 1990) self-generated, higher-order attention demanding processes associated 27 with detecting, estimating, and correcting response produced errors. 28 7…”

Effects of Self-Controlled Feedback on Balance during Blocked Training for Patients with Cerebrovascular Accident

“…Many studies have provided feedback for balance improvement of cerebrovascular accident patients 3,15) . The types of feedback reported are faded 28) , summary 29,30) , average 31) , bandwidth 32) , and frequency feedback 17) , and the frequency and provision of feedback has varied. However, these feedback methods did not encourage active participation of the learner.…”

Effects of low frequency continuous muscle vibration on learning and transfer of a knee joint positioning task

“…During both the third and fourth block subjects received verbal feedback every third trial, but during the third block, they received feedback after 4 trials (trials 1, 4, 7, 10) and during the 4 th block they received feedback after only 3 trials (trial 2,5,8). Fading the frequency of feedback over the course of practice has been shown to be more effective for retention of performance gains than delivery of feedback after every trial [7]. The same type and frequency of verbal feedback was delivered to both groups.…”

“…Improved perceptual awareness around the knee joint of the affected limb should result in enhanced control of the prosthesis. Currently, vibration is being explored as a tool to provide augmented feedback about limb force and motion to persons with upper limb amputations [6,7].…”