Reference Cardiopulmonary Physiologic Parameters for Standing, Unrestrained White Rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium Simum)

Abstract

Chemical restraint is an important tool for the management and medical care of both captive and free-ranging rhinoceroses. Current anesthetic protocols for the white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) are reported to cause varying degrees of hypertension, tachycardia, muscular stiffness and fasciculation, acidosis, and, most importantly, respiratory depression with resulting hypoventilation, hypoxia, and hypercapnea. To assist in the assessment and development of new and improved anesthetic techniques for the white rhinoceros, the following cardiopulmonary reference parameters for standing, unrestrained white rhinoceroses were generated (mean +/- standard error [minimum maximum]): heart rate = 39 +/- 0.8 beats/min (32-42), respiratory rate = 19 +/- 0.6 breaths/min (16-23), corrected indirect systolic blood pressure = 160 +/- 2.9 mm Hg (146-183), corrected indirect diastolic blood pressure = 104 +/- 2.3 mm Hg (88-117), corrected indirect mean blood pressure = 124 +/- 2.2 mm Hg (108-135), end tidal CO2 = 45.1 +/- 0.7 mm Hg (41.7-48.0), rectal temperature = 36.8 +/- 0.1 degrees C (36.6-37.2), arterial blood pH = 7.391 +/- 0.007 (7.346-7.431), arterial partial pressure of oxygen = 98.2 +/- 1.4 mm Hg (90.2-108.6), arterial partial pressure of CO2 = 49.0 +/- 0.9 mm Hg (44.4-53.7), base excess = 3.5 +/- 0.4 mmol/L (1.9-5.9), bicarbonate = 29.3 +/- 0.4 mmol/L (27.3-32.2), and arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SaO2) = 97.2 +/- 0.1% (96.6-98.0).

Efficacy of a Portable Oxygen Concentrator with Pulsed Delivery for Treatment of Hypoxemia During Anesthesia of Wildlife

“…Hypothermia (rectal temperature <37.0°C) was recorded in three captive-held orangutans, in one adult and two juvenile wolverines, in two free-ranging yearling brown bears and two captive brown bears. Rectal temperatures <37.0°C were recorded during immobilisation of black (2 of 26) and white rhinoceros (6 of 17), however, the temperature was within the normal range reported in rhinoceros (Citino & Bush, 2007;Fowler & Miller, 2003).…”

“…In immobilised white rhinoceros, the heart rate remained more than twice as high compared to values reported in unrestrained white rhinoceros (80-156 versus 32-42 beats per minute (bpm), respectively) (Citino & Bush, 2007). Tachycardia likely developed as a result of physical activity before recumbency in combination with sympathomimetic effects of etorphine, hypercapnia and hypoxaemia during immobilisation.…”

“…Lions immobilised with medetomidine-zolazepam-tiletamine (Study II) had respiratory rates similar to lions immobilised with zolazepam-tiletamine alone (Stander & Morkel, 1991). Throughout immobilisation of white rhinoceros (Study V), the respiratory rate was decreased compared to reference values in standing, unrestrained conspecifics (8-16 versus 16-23 breaths per minute, respectively) (Citino & Bush, 2007).…”

INTRAVENOUS BUTORPHANOL IMPROVES CARDIOPULMONARY PARAMETERS IN GAME-RANCHED WHITE RHINOCEROSES (CERATOTHERIUM SIMUM) IMMOBILIZED WITH ETORPHINE AND AZAPERONE

“…Physiologic data and blood samples were collected before butorphanol (10 mg of butorphanol for each 1 mg of etorphine) was injected and 5 min (T5) and 15 min (T15) after recumbency. Mean blood gas and physiologic reference values previously reported from 12 healthy, standing, unrestrained, captive white rhinoceroses (Citino and Bush 2007) are added for comparison. Mean differences were compared to zero (no difference) using t-test to assess the impact associated with butorphanol injection, and P-values were interpreted at the 0.05 significance level.…”

“…Diprenorphine has been used, but the effect of this mixed agonist-antagonist can be unpredictable. Butorphanol tartrate, a m-receptor antagonist and k-receptor agonist (Branson and Cross 2001), has been used alone or in combination with azaperone to sedate or anesthetize rhinoceroses (Radcliffe et al 2000;Portas 2004;Citino and Bush 2007;Burroughs et al 2012). It is also frequently used in South Africa to improve respiratory depression and ''walking'' white and black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis) and African buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) (Burroughs et al 2012;M.V.Z.L.…”