Release of Particulate Lead from Four Lead Corrosion Products in Drinking Water: A Laboratory Study Coupled with Microscopic Observations and Computational Fluid Dynamics

Abstract

Particulate lead resulting from the detachment of lead corrosion products (LCPs) contributes significantly to lead contamination in drinking water. Since LCPs formed under different water chemistry possesses different crystal structures, their hydrodynamic behaviors could be significantly different in flowing water. In this study, flushing experiments and microscopic observations were employed to investigate the release of cerussite (PbCO 3 ), hydrocerussite (Pb 3 (CO 3 ) 2 (OH) 2 ), chloropyromorphite (Pb 5 (PO 4 ) 3 Cl), and lead dioxide (scrutinyite α-PbO 2 /plattnerite β-PbO 2 ), the four LCPs commonly found in the drinking water distribution system. Under the same flow rate, particulate lead release showed the following trend: lead dioxide > cerussite ∼ chloropyromorphite > hydrocerussite. In the range of 1−10 L/min, a higher flow rate enhanced the release of cerussite, chloropyromorphite, and lead dioxide, while the release of hydrocerussite was not significantly affected, likely due to its platelike crystal structure that reduced the shear force exerted by the flowing water. The detachments of visible cerussite and chloropyromorphite particles were captured using a digital microscope at flow rates of 8.0 and 8.2 L/min, and the shear forces causing their detachments were determined to be 5.8 × 10 −11 and 3.1 × 10 −10 N, respectively, using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Our study demonstrated that crystal structure could be an important factor affecting the detachment of LCPs and CFD could be a useful tool to characterize their hydrodynamic behaviors.

Characterization of Fe-Containing and Pb-Containing Nanoparticles Resulting from Corrosion of Plumbing Materials in Tap Water Using a Hyphenated ATM-DMA-spICP-MS System

“…Again, the smaller sizes determined by the stand-alone spICP-MS may not accurately reflect the true sizes of the Pb-containing NPs with more complex compositions. Pb corrosion products, including carbonates, such as cerussite (PbCO 3 ) and hydrocerussite (Pb 3 (CO 3 ) 2 (OH) 2 ), and oxides, such as litharge (PbO) and scrutinyite/plattnerite (PbO 2 ), could be present in the distribution system. − , Detachments of these corrosion particles could contribute to the Pb-containing NPs in drinking water. ,,, Therefore, the mode size ( D e = 100 nm) determined by the ATM-DMA-spICP-MS hyphenated system should better represent the size of the Pb-containing NPs in the drinking water sample. The particle number concentration determined by the stand-alone spICP-MS and the hyphenated system were 3.99 × 10 6 and 1.40 × 10 7 #/mL, respectively.…”

“…[38][39][40]45 Detachments of these corrosion particles could contribute to the Pb-containing NPs in drinking water. 12,41,42,46 Therefore, the mode size (D e = 100 nm) determined by the ATM-DMA-spICP-MS hyphenated system should better represent the size of the Pb-containing NPs in the drinking water sample. The particle number concentration determined by the stand-alone spICP-MS and the hyphenated system were 3.99 × 10 6 and 1.40 × 10 7 #/mL, respectively.…”

Analysis of Engineered Nanoparticles in Seawater Using ICP-MS-Based Technology: From Negative to Positive Samples

“…The origin of detectable Sb-NPs (about 0.04 μg L −1 ) is not clear, but potential sources might be from various industrial as well as natural sources (e.g., weathering of the stibnite ore). On the other hand, no nanolead was detected, although it was reported that particulate lead may exist in freshwater at least [ 18 ], possibly as a result of the detachment of lead corrosion products. The most plausible explanation is due to a high salt content exerting a considerable dissolving action on Pb nanomaterials [ 7 ].…”

Enhancement of the physical adsorption of some insoluble lead compounds from drinking water onto polylactic acid and graphene oxide using molybdenum disulfide nanoparticles: Theoretical investigation

“…Despite the implementation of filtration and purification processes for drinking water, some lead-insoluble compounds remain persisting in domestic drinking water [1][2][3]. Recently, cerussite (PbCO 3 ), pyromorphite (Pb 5 (PO 4 ) 3 Cl), and lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) are among the most hazardous insoluble lead compounds that persist in drinking water distribution systems [2][3][4]. They are leached in drinking water primarily from corrosive water effects on the household plumbing systems containing lead in pipes, solder, or fittings or from the service connections to homes, galvanic corrosion [4][5][6].…”

“…Recently, cerussite (PbCO 3 ), pyromorphite (Pb 5 (PO 4 ) 3 Cl), and lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) are among the most hazardous insoluble lead compounds that persist in drinking water distribution systems [2][3][4]. They are leached in drinking water primarily from corrosive water effects on the household plumbing systems containing lead in pipes, solder, or fittings or from the service connections to homes, galvanic corrosion [4][5][6]. According to the World Human Organization (WHO), the presence of lead and lead compounds in drinking water causes many hazardous human health diseases, such as neurotoxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity [7].…”