Repeated apneas do not affect the hypercapnic ventilatory response in the short term

Andersson, Johan; Schagatay, Erika

doi:10.1007/s00421-008-0936-y

Cited by 7 publications

(3 citation statements)

References 29 publications

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“…While many participants had a dive duration within the easy phase, the participants that surpassed this point are apparently at greater risk for developing dangerous hypoxia. In competition divers, increased sensitivity to hypoxia per se could be protective (Andersson and Schagatay 2009 ). The relative importance of hypercapnia and hypoxia, respectively, to the development of an urge to breathe should be further studied in the novice compared to trained divers for a better understanding of risk.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effects of hyperventilation on oxygenation, apnea breaking points, diving response, and spleen contraction during serial static apneas

et al. 2023

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Purpose Hyperventilation is considered a major risk factor for hypoxic blackout during breath-hold diving, as it delays the apnea breaking point. However, little is known about how it affects oxygenation, the diving response, and spleen contraction during serial breath-holding. Methods 18 volunteers with little or no experience in freediving performed two series of 5 apneas with cold facial immersion to maximal duration at 2-min intervals. In one series, apnea was preceded by normal breathing and in the other by 15 s of hyperventilation. End-tidal oxygen and end-tidal carbon dioxide were measured before and after every apnea, and peripheral oxygen saturation, heart rate, breathing movements, and skin blood flow were measured continuously. Spleen dimensions were measured every 15 s. Results Apnea duration was longer after hyperventilation (133 vs 111 s). Hyperventilation reduced pre-apnea end-tidal CO2 (17.4 vs 29.0 mmHg) and post-apnea end-tidal CO2 (38.5 vs 40.3 mmHg), and delayed onset of involuntary breathing movements (112 vs 89 s). End-tidal O2 after apnea was lower in the hyperventilation trial (83.4 vs 89.4 mmHg) and so was the peripheral oxygen saturation nadir after apnea (90.6 vs 93.6%). During hyperventilation, the nadir peripheral oxygen saturation was lower in the last apnea than in the first (94.0% vs 86.7%). There were no differences in diving response or spleen volume reduction between conditions or across series. Conclusions Serial apneas revealed a previously undescribed aspect of hyperventilation; a progressively increased desaturation across the series, not observed after normal breathing and could heighten the risk of a blackout.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effects of hyperventilation on oxygenation, apnea breaking points, diving response, and spleen contraction during serial static apneas

et al. 2023

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“…First, even in dry conditions, the so-called diving reflex ( Costalat, 2015 ) triggers a bradycardia powerful enough to nullify the exercise-induced increase in Heart Rate (HR) produced by breath-hold diving exercise ( Breskovic, 2011 ). The diving response also elicits a centralization of blood flow by increased peripheral vasoconstriction ( Andersson, 2009 ), as a consequence of hypoxaemia ( Lindholm et al, 2007 ), whilst trying to maintain continuous gas exchange (O 2 /CO 2 ) between the alveoli, blood and the energy-demanding cell. Redistribution of the cardiac output better maintains the blood flow to organs sensitive to hypoxia, such as the brain and heart, leaving peripheral tissues without sufficient oxygen to metabolize lactate.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effects of apnoea training on aerobic and anaerobic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Asís-Fernández

Sereno²,

Turner³

et al. 2022

Front. Physiol.

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Background Trained breath-hold divers have shown physiological adaptations that might improve athletes’ aerobic and anaerobic performance.Objective This study aimed to systematically review the scientific literature and perform a meta-analysis to assess the effects of voluntary apnoea training on markers of anaerobic and aerobic performance, such as blood lactate and VO2max.Methods A literature search on three databases (Web of Science, PubMed and SCOPUS) was conducted in March 2022. The inclusion criteria were 1) peer-reviewed journal publication; 2) clinical trials; 3) healthy humans; 4) effects of apnoea training; 5) variables included markers of aerobic or anaerobic performance, such as lactate and VO2max.Results 545 manuscripts were identified following database examination. Only seven studies met the inclusion criteria and were, therefore, included in the meta-analysis. 126 participants were allocated to either voluntary apnoea training (ApT; n = 64) or normal breathing (NB; n = 63). Meta-analysis on the included studies demonstrated that ApT increased the peak blood lactate concentration more than NB (MD = 1.89 mmol*L−1 [95% CI 1.05, 2.73], z = 4.40, p < 0.0001). In contrast, there were no statistically significant effects of ApT on VO2max (MD = 0.89 ml*kg−1*min−1 [95% CI −1.23, 3.01], z = 0.82, p = 0.41).Conclusion ApT might be an alternative strategy to enhace anaerobic performance associated with increased maximum blood lactate; however, we did not find evidence of ApT effects on physiological aerobic markers, such as VO2max.Systematic Review Registration: [PRISMA], identifier [registration number].

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“…This phenomenon has been speculated to gradually lead in increased BHT in protocols of five repeated breath holds with an interval of 2-8 min [10][11][12][13][14][15]. However, all these assumptions were recently questioned since five repeated breath holds did not change HCVR in novice subjects and therefore recorded gradual BHT enhancement could not be attributed to HCVR alterations [16].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Hypercapnic Ventilatory Response: A Comparison Between Elite and Novice Skin Divers

Bourdas¹,

Tsakiris²,

Konstantopoulos³

et al. 2014

TOSMJ

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This study tested whether hypercapnic ventilatory response (HCVR) is affected by experience in apnoea and explored the possible underlying mechanisms of this phenomenon, with reference to maximum breath hold time (BHT). Elite apnoea divers (EBH=11) and novice subjects (NBH=10) performed a HCVR test (BM), which was repeated by the latter group on another day (PRE) after subjects executed five repeated maximum apnoeas. Subsequently, after a two week period of daily apnoea training, NBH subjects repeated HCVR test (POST). Diaphragmatic activity was recorded to determine apnoea easy going phase. Baseline HCVR of EBH was not lower than that of NBH. After execution of five apnoeas, HCVR in EBH decreased (P≤0.05) whereas it was not different among BM, PRE, and POST conditions in the NBH. Higher BHT and easy going phase values ensued from apnoea maneuvers in EBH than in NBH (PRE and POST), and in NBH POST compared to PRE condition (P≤0.05). HCVR was highly correlated (P≤0.05) with the cumulative easy going phase in EBH, PRE condition but nothing-similar observed in NBH, neither in PRE nor in POST conditions. These results indicate that at rest HCVR is not lower in experienced, than novice, skin divers; this response becomes dull after five repeated maximum apnoeas only in EBH. In the NBH group, two weeks of apnoea training are not adequate to affect HCVR despite an increase of BHT. It appears that after a repeated maximum apnoeas maneuver experienced skin divers improve BHT by extending easy going phase whereas NBH by other means.

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Repeated apneas do not affect the hypercapnic ventilatory response in the short term

Cited by 7 publications

References 29 publications

Effects of hyperventilation on oxygenation, apnea breaking points, diving response, and spleen contraction during serial static apneas

Effects of hyperventilation on oxygenation, apnea breaking points, diving response, and spleen contraction during serial static apneas

Effects of apnoea training on aerobic and anaerobic performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Hypercapnic Ventilatory Response: A Comparison Between Elite and Novice Skin Divers

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