Reproductive travel to, from and within sub-Saharan Africa: A scoping review

Moll, Tessa; Gerrits, Trudie; Hammarberg, Karin; Manderson, Lenore; Whittaker, Andrea

doi:10.1016/j.rbms.2021.12.003

Cited by 15 publications

(9 citation statements)

References 33 publications

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“…However, a lack of acceptance of gay men, let alone gay fathers in Kenyan culture is likely to see this destination to have difficulty in sustaining this market. However, given the growing demand within sub-Saharan Africa for all forms of assisted reproduction [30] Kenya will continue to attract clients from within the region along with other locations permitting surrogacy such as Ghana, Uganda and Nigeria.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Trends in engagement in surrogacy by nationality 2018–2020: a survey of surrogacy agencies

Everingham¹,

Whittaker²

2022

Global Reproductive Health

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Introduction: Global reproductive destinations are constantly changing, and so is the cross-border reproductive movement of both gametes and intended parents seeking to build families. Quantifying the use of cross-border surrogacy is difficult given no reliable data exists on the global patterns of use of CBRC generally or surrogacy in particular. Methods: Approximately 150 surrogacy agencies in countries offering surrogacy to foreigners were invited to provide consolidated data on the number of commissioning singles and couples who signed with their agency for surrogacy services over the 2018-2020 calendar years, by nationality of the biological intended parent(s). Twenty-four agencies (16%) reported on 5968 clients. Results: Other than the United States, agencies were involved predominately in arrangements for foreigners. In the United States, other than the large domestic market, France, Australia, and Israel were large source countries. Australia and France were also large source countries for Canada. China was overwhelmingly the largest source country engaging in Ukraine. In Georgia, other than Georgian nationals, China, Israel, and the United States were the largest foreign source countries. In Greece, apart from locals, the largest source countries were Italy and Australia. Colombia reported a wide spread of foreign clientele with Israel, the United States, and Canada as the largest. COVID-19 had a significant impact on enrolments in Georgia and Ukraine-each experienced large declines in enrolments when comparing 2019-2020. In contrast, despite travel bans in 2020, agencies in 3 of 4 unregulated countries continued to report increases in enrolments. Conclusions: The global cross-border surrogacy market remains highly volatile, experiencing rapid growth and decline, especially in newer destinations. Source countries providing surrogacy clients are based partly on proximity and cultural ties, but more so on affordability. Further research is required to monitor the effects of engagement in newer destinations with fewer protections.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Trends in engagement in surrogacy by nationality 2018–2020: a survey of surrogacy agencies

Everingham¹,

Whittaker²

2022

Global Reproductive Health

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“…The number of ART clinics in sub-Saharan Africa is on the increase, with some 110 clinics operating in the region (IFFS, 2019). Fifteen countries in the region have registered with the African Network and Registry for ART (ANARA), the regional monitoring body, with South Africa, Nigeria and Ghana having the largest number of ART clinics (IFFS, 2019;Moll et al, 2022). South Africa and Ghana are regarded as the "reprohub" in sub-Saharan Africa (Moll et al, 2022).…”

Section: Art and The Ghanaian Baby Marketmentioning

confidence: 99%

Commercial Surrogacy: Invisible Reproductive Workers in Ghana

Boampong

Appiah-Boateng

Osei³

et al. 2023

GLJ

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The issues facing surrogates are labour issues. However, there is scanty literature on the working conditions of surrogates in sub-Saharan Africa. This article explores the labour conditions of these unprotected and invisible reproductive workers in Ghana. In-depth interviews were conducted with key informants between 2018 and 2019. The study revealed the following: 1) Baby agents were increasingly playing a dominant role in the surrogacy industry, and through the surrogacy homes are able to create docile and disciplined surrogates. 2) Surrogacy agreements were oppressive and designed to reinforce the control over the bodies of surrogates. 3) Pregnancy-related scars leave emotional scars on the minds of surrogates. We recommend state regulation of the industry to ensure strict supervision of baby agents to minimise exploitation of surrogates. KEYWORDS: surrogacy home; baby agents; surrogates; commercial surrogacy; Ghana

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“…Within sub-Saharan Africa, ARTs have been employed since the 1980s. However, while the meaning and impact of infertility for affected people in this region have been widely researched (since the 1990s), the local use of ARTs and related reprotravel has only recently started to receive scholarly attention, in particular from anthropologists (Bochow, 2015; Faria, 2015, 2016, 2018a, 2018b; Hiadzi and Boafo, 2020; Hiadzi et al, 2021; Hiadzi and Woodward, 2019; Hörbst, 2016; Hörbst and Gerrits 2016a; Gerrits 2016a; Gerrits 2018; Inhorn and Gürtin, 2011; Moll et al, 2022).…”

Section: Case Studies Of Repronubs and Their Repropreneursmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…For the local entrepreneurs, their local knowledge—and sometimes their personal experiences—social capital, and networks allow them to find and recruit surrogates, donors, clinics, and intended parents. Language differences with foreign clients also demand the involvement of bilingual staff or interpreters to liaise between local surrogates and clinics and foreign clients (Moll et al, 2022).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Emerging “repronubs” and “repropreneurs”: Transnational surrogacy in Ghana, Kazakhstan, and Laos

Whittaker

Gerrits

Weis

2022

International Journal of Comparative Sociology

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In this article, we offer an analysis of the development of “repronubs”: less-known locations offering small-scale, niche cross-border gestational surrogacy or surrogacy services for a regional market. This analytical category of “repronubs” is useful to describe the formation of the industry from small local sites to those offering cross-border services. Based on our work in these locations, we compare the markets, regulatory contexts, and organization of the industry in Ghana, Kazakhstan, and Laos, focusing on the “repropreneurs” or surrogacy facilitation agents as pivotal in the emergence of these sites. These “repronubs” highlight the surrogacy trade between countries of the Global South and are established next to or instead of the more well-known North–South destinations. We document how surrogacy itself is increasingly stratified between higher cost and better-regulated environments such as in certain states of the United States or Canada and lower cost, less well regulated, and regionally focused environments in the settings we describe. These locations are characterized by poor or liberal regulations, the existence of local in vitro fertilization (IVF) expertise, and the emergence of local repropreneurs driving the trade using their social networks. The growth of demand from China and the growing affluent middle class in Africa is creating further markets for such regional “nubs.” Studying surrogacy in such locations is made difficult by the secrecy and confidentiality surrounding it.

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Reproductive travel to, from and within sub-Saharan Africa: A scoping review

Cited by 15 publications

References 33 publications

Trends in engagement in surrogacy by nationality 2018–2020: a survey of surrogacy agencies

Trends in engagement in surrogacy by nationality 2018–2020: a survey of surrogacy agencies

Commercial Surrogacy: Invisible Reproductive Workers in Ghana

Emerging “repronubs” and “repropreneurs”: Transnational surrogacy in Ghana, Kazakhstan, and Laos

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