“…Study findings suggesting a positive association between alcohol use and cognition could be attributed to unmeasured or residual confounding factors [ 79 , 80 ], such as smoking [ 81 ], drink types [ 82 ], drinking patterns [ 83 ], personality [ 81 , 84 ], intelligence [ 70 , 85 , 86 ], educational attainment [ 87 , 88 ], potential abstainer errors [ 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 ], reverse causality bias [ 93 ], recall error [ 94 ], within-person temporal variation [ 95 , 96 ], ascertainment of diseases [ 97 ], and the sociability effect of alcohol [ 98 ]. Study findings suggesting a positive association between alcohol use and cognition could be attributed to poor motivation [ 99 , 100 , 101 ].…”