Risk of Breast Cancer in Relation to Cigarette Smoking

Cigarette smoke metabolically promotes cancer, via autophagy and premature aging in the host stromal microenvironment

“…[1][2][3][4][5] Although cigarette smoke is most often associated as a caustive agent in human lung cancers, it also clearly has pervasive systemic effects. For example, cigarette smoke increases the risk for the development of many different types of human cancers, including head and neck, bladder, pancreatic, stomach, liver, ovarian, colon, prostate and breast cancers.…”

“…For example, cigarette smoke increases the risk for the development of many different types of human cancers, including head and neck, bladder, pancreatic, stomach, liver, ovarian, colon, prostate and breast cancers. [1][2][3][4][5] During the 20 th century, it has been estimated that tobacco use contributed significantly to the premature deaths of nearly 100 million people world-wide, and it is Cigarette smoke has been directly implicated in the disease pathogenesis of a plethora of different human cancer subtypes, including breast cancers. the prevailing view is that cigarette smoke acts as a mutagen and DNA damaging agent in normal epithelial cells, driving tumor initiation.…”

Selective exposure reporting and Medline indexing limited the search sensitivity for observational studies of the adverse effects of oral contraceptives

“…Our gold standard therefore consisted of 58 reports published before 1996 and indexed on Medline . Of these, 48 were reports of case-control studies [9][10][11][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][43][44][45][46][47][49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66], 7 were reports of cohort studies [12,…”

“…There were a total of 10 citations without interventionrelated MeSH terms [9,11,12,18,24,26,29,32,49,50]. One of these citations contained the abstract text word "hormonal" [24], but the other nine did not have any abstract or title text words related to oral contraceptives, estrogen, or hormones.…”

Cigarette smoke and the hormonal receptors status in breast cancer

“…Some researchers hypothesize that smoking might play a double role in malignant breast neoplasia (3,9), exerting a "protective" action by decreasing estrogen activity and a "risk" effect as well, since many Corresponding author. substances contained in cigarette smoke, including some carcinogens, have been found in breast fluid.…”