“…Model-free frameworks are mainly based on deep learning approaches. They have achieved excellent applications in image object detection, image retrieval, video, and other fields with their strong learning ability (Benito-Picazo et al, 2020;García-González et al, 2020;Hamreras et al, 2020;Lara-Benítez et al, 2020;Simões et al, 2020;Sørensen et al, 2020;Thurnhofer-Hemsi et al, 2020;Vera-Olmos et al, 2019;Yang et al, 2019). In many fields of civil engineering, deep learning has achieved promising results, such as concrete compressive strength estimation (Rafiei et al, 2017), earthquake early warning (Rafiei & Adeli, 2017a), construction cost estimation (Rafiei & Adeli, 2018), sale prices estimation (Rafiei & Adeli, 2016), pavement roughness assessment (Jeong et al, 2020), and so on.…”