Salt, diet, and health

MacGregor, G. A.; Wardener, HE de

doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(05)77020-3

Cited by 21 publications

(29 citation statements)

References 2 publications

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“…The worldwide average salt intake per individual is approximately 10 g/day, which is greater than the FDA recommended intake by about 4 g, and may exceed what is actually necessary by more than 8 g [10,31].…”

Section: Daily Sodium Requirementmentioning

confidence: 99%

Salt craving: The psychobiology of pathogenic sodium intake

Morris

Johnson

2008

Physiology & Behavior

115

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Ionic sodium, obtained from dietary sources usually in the form of sodium chloride (NaCl, common table salt) is essential to physiological function, and in humans salt is generally regarded as highly palatable. This marriage of pleasant taste and physiological utility might appear fortunate -an appealing taste helps to ensure that such a vital substance is ingested. However, the powerful mechanisms governing sodium retention and sodium balance are unfortunately best adapted for an environment in which few humans still exist. Our physiological and behavioral means for maintaining body sodium and fluid homeostasis evolved in hot climates where sources of dietary sodium were scarce. For many reasons, contemporary diets are high in salt and daily sodium intakes are excessive. High sodium consumption can have pathological consequences. Although there are a number of obstacles to limiting salt ingestion, high sodium intake, like smoking, is a modifiable behavioral risk factor for many cardiovascular diseases. This review discusses the psychobiological mechanisms that promote and maintain excessive dietary sodium intake. Of particular importance are experiencedependent processes including the sensitization of the neural systems underlying sodium appetite and the effects of sodium balance on hedonic state and mood. Accumulating evidence suggests that plasticity within the central nervous system as a result of experience with high salt intake, sodium depletion, or a chronic unresolved sodium appetite fosters enduring changes in sodium related appetitive and consummatory behaviors.

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Section: Daily Sodium Requirementmentioning

confidence: 99%

Salt craving: The psychobiology of pathogenic sodium intake

Morris

Johnson

2008

Physiology & Behavior

115

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“…1 Hypertension is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease and, although most hypertension have no obvious direct cause, dietary salt (or sodium) has been suggested to be an important etiological factor. [2][3][4][5] In addition to its effects on blood pressure, excess salt intake has been demonstrated to have blood pressure-independent effects on the heart and blood vessels. [6][7][8][9][10][11] Thus, the consequences of excess salt intake and benefits of salt restriction are becoming increasingly clear, 12,13 and it is highly appropriate to consider salt in this symposium on 'dysfunctional' foods.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The time course of salt-induced hypertension, and why it matters

Vliet

Montani

2008

Int J Obes

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The epidemiology of salt-induced hypertension has been explored in detail in animal studies, in some cases involving exposures to excess dietary salt for much of the animal's lifespan. The results of these studies demonstrate the presence of two distinct time courses of the blood pressure response to a high salt intake: an acute (rapid) blood pressure response occurring over days to weeks, and a slow and progressive blood pressure response that develops over extremely long periods of time, amounting to a significant fraction of the lifespan in normal individuals. The acute form of salt sensitivity is well known in humans, having often been demonstrated as a fall in blood pressure during the period of salt restriction. The slow and progressive form of salt sensitivity has been demonstrated directly in rats and chimpanzees and is also evident in analyses of human cross-population data as a salt dependency of age-associated changes of blood pressure. This slow and progressive component of salt-induced hypertension may be attributable, at least in part, to a progressive rise in the acute salt sensitivity of blood pressure during sustained exposure to high salt. However, a progressively irreversible or 'self sustaining' component of salt-induced hypertension has also been demonstrated in rat studies. This irreversible component has not been completely characterized, but its presence raises the possibility that blood pressure responses to salt restriction may not fully reveal the contribution of salt to blood pressure or the epidemiology of hypertension. These various components of salt sensitivity (acute vs slow, reversible vs irreversible) should be considered in any comprehensive explanation of the effects of salt on blood pressure and especially in experimental studies of the genetic and physiological mechanisms underlying salt-induced hypertension.

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“…Table 12 lists the sodium content of a number of foods in their natural state and after processing. In some cases, for example chick peas, sweetcorn and peas, which have a naturally very low sodium content, food processing increases the sodium content by 10-100-fold; and foods such as corned beef, bran flakes or smoked salmon, have sodium intakes of 1-2%, equivalent to, or more than, the sodium concentration of Atlantic seawater (MacGregor & de Wardener, 1998). Table 13 lists the foods that contribute the largest proportions of sodium to the diet in the United Kingdom, based on National Food Survey data for 2000.…”

Section: Sources Of Dietary Sodiummentioning

confidence: 99%

Does dietary salt induce autoimmunity?

Croxford

Waisman

2013

Cell Res

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Sodium intakes of different populations around the world became of interest to the medical research community with the publication of Dahl's famous graph showing a positive straightline relationship of dietary sodium intake to prevalence of hypertension. At that time populations were identified around the world with vastly different sodium intakes (and rates of hypertension) ranging up to about 10.6 g/d sodium (460 mmol/d) in north-east Japan. Dietary survey methods tend to underestimate sodium intakes and timed 24-hour urinary sodium excretion is considered the "gold standard" method to estimate intake (some 85-90% of ingested sodium is excreted through the kidneys). However, there is also some evidence to suggest that spot ( Belgium and Japan where there have been public health campaigns to lower sodium in the community, for the most part mean sodium intakes have not changed much over the past 20 or more years. Sodium intakes tend to be higher in men than women, reflecting their higher food and energy intakes. Data in children and young people suggest higher intakes in boys than girls and at older ages in both sexes, but there are serious methodological difficulties in obtaining reliable and valid dietary data in this age group. For all countries for which recent data are available, dietary sodium intakes are much higher than the physiological need of 10-20 mmol/d (230-460 mg/d). In industrialized countries, about 75% of sodium in the diet comes from manufactured foods and foods eaten away from home. Some children's foods are extremely high in sodium. In Asian countries, high proportions of sodium in the diet come from salt added in cooking and from sauces such as soy and miso (in Japan).Representative samples of around 100 people (200 if men and women are to be considered separately), each providing a single timed 24-hour collection of urine for the estimation of sodium, would be required to monitor sodium intake in the community with a 95% confidence limit about the mean of c. +/-12 mmol/d. Much larger samples might be needed if greater precision is required.3

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Salt, diet, and health

Cited by 21 publications

References 2 publications

Salt craving: The psychobiology of pathogenic sodium intake

Salt craving: The psychobiology of pathogenic sodium intake

The time course of salt-induced hypertension, and why it matters

Does dietary salt induce autoimmunity?

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