Satellite Analysis of the Environmental Impacts of Armed-Conflict in Rakhine, Myanmar

Abstract

The impacts of armed conflict on the environment are extremely complex and difficult to investigate, given the impossibility of accessing the affected area and reliable data limitation. Very-high-resolution satellite imageries and highly reliable machine learning algorithms become very useful in studying direct and indirect impacts of war on the ecosystem, in addition to connected effects on human lives. The Rohingya conflict is described as one of the worst humanitarian crises and human-made disasters of the 21st Century. Quantification of damage due to the conflict and the suitability of human resettlement has been lacking despite the ongoing agreements to repatriate refugees and the importance of ecosystem services for the communities' survival. Here we report the investigation of environmental conditions pre-, during, and post-conflict in the conflict zone using satellite data. We implemented and experienced the Google Earth Engine (GEE) cloud-based computing platform with a widely applied algorithm, the Random Forest (RF) classifier. We found striking near-complete demolition of inhabited regions, dramatic and highly significant increase in burning areas, and substantial deforestation. We discuss the reasons behind such findings from the Rakhine case and debate some general conservation lessons applicable to other countries undergoing post-conflict transitions.

Monitoring war‐generated environmental security using remote sensing: A review

“…In order to estimate the abandoned agricultural area, pre during and postwar LANDSAT imagery has been used over Bosnia (Witmer, 2008; Witmer & O'Loughlin, 2009). LANDSAT‐5 and LANDSAT‐8 have been used together with other satellite imagery to investigate the impact of conflicts in part of Myanmar over 8 years (Aung, 2021). The results showed substantial damage in the conflicted zones, such as burnt areas, agricultural and urban areas destruction, loss of forest, and wetland areas.…”

The application of Geographical Information Systems to armed violent conflict resolution and peacebuilding: a literature review

“…Peace building (postconflict reconstruction) Goodchild (2000) defines a GIS as a computing application that allows the user to create, store, manipulate, visualize, and analyse geographic information. This technology has the capability to map locations on the earth's surface (Aung, 2021;Heywood, 2006;Goodchild, 2000;Wright, 1997), allowing users to display, visualize and query data in order to understand their spatial relationships and patterns. Typically, GIS users deal with 'geographical or spatial data'-"where things are, or perhaps where they were or will be" (Huisman and Rolf, 2009:27).…”

The 10th anniversary of the scientific description of the black snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus strykeri): It is time to initiate a set of new management strategies to save this critically endangered primate from extinction

“…In addition, continued conflict between the Myanmar army and ethnic groups has led to numerous human rights violations and a reduction in social welfare for poor families (Lim et al, 2017; Prescott et al, 2017; Simpson, 2014; Woods, 2019; Woods et al, 2021). For example, the 2016–2017 armed conflict in Rakhine State led to the almost complete demolition of residential areas, a sharp increase in forest fires, and large‐scale deforestation (12.5% loss) in the northern part of the state (Aung, 2021). In Kachin State, the extraction of minerals and timber, illegally exported into neighboring countries on lands confiscated across conflict areas, is the main source of income for both the Myanmar Military and the Kachin Independence Army (KIA) (EIA Environmental Investigation Agency, 2015; Woods, 2011).…”

“…conflict in Rakhine State led to the almost complete demolition of residential areas, a sharp increase in forest fires, and large-scale deforestation(12.5% loss) in the northern part of the state(Aung, 2021). In Kachin State, the extraction of minerals and timber, illegally exported into neighboring countries on lands confiscated across conflict areas, is the main source of income for both the Myanmar Military and the Kachin Independence Army (KIA)(EIA Environmental Investigation Agency, 2015;Woods, 2011).Beginning in 2011, Myanmar's transition to a civil and democratic political system facilitated the implementation of several environmental protection laws, policies and plans such as the 2012 Myanmar Environmental Conservation Law, the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2015-2020, the 2019 National Environmental Policy of Myanmar, and the Myanmar Sustainable Development Plan 2018-2030.…”