SCHOOL FAILURE AND DELINQUENCY Which Causes Which?

Abstract

An extensive literature has developed on the relationship between school failure and adolescent misconduct. Almost all of this literature has assumed that school failure is causally prior to adolescent misconduct. but little systematic attention has been devoted to the critical issue of causal order. of misconduct is causally prior to school failure, most of the recent work on the school‐delinquency linkage would have to be rejected. Given a workable definition of “delinquency” or “misconduct.” the causal order issue can be empirically assessed. Evidence from cross‐sectional and longitudinal studies provides at least tentative support for the proposition that school failure precedes misconduct in the causal process.

Does Dropping Out of School Mean Dropping Into Delinquency?*

“…For example, Elliott and Voss (1974; see also Elliott, 1966Elliott, , 1978 found that rates of official delinquency for those who would eventually drop out of school were highest just before they quit and then declined sharply (regardless of the age at which leaving school occurred). Other research has also shown that the level of delinquency declines among those who drop out of school (LeBlanc and Frechette, 1989;Mukherjee, 1971; see Phillips and Kelly, 1979 for a review). Contrarily, other early studies that have used a longer follow-up period have reported findings that delinquency increases after dropping out of school.…”

Using State Child Labor Laws to Identify the Causal Effect of Youth Employment on Deviant Behavior and Academic Achievement

“…Virtually without exception, empirical research has indicated that youth who work during the school year, particularly those who work intensively, are at higher risk of delinquent behavior (Agnew 1986; Bachman and Schulenberg 1993; Bachman et al 2003; Cullen et al 1997; Mihalic and Elliott 1997; Ploeger 1997; Steinberg and Dornbusch 1991; Steinberg et al 1993; Wright and Cullen 2004), work-place deviance (Ruggiero et al 1982; Wright and Cullen 2000), and substance use (Bachman et al 1981, 2003; Greenberger et al 1981; Johnson 2004; Longest and Shanahan 2007; McMorris and Uggen 2000; Mortimer 2003; Safron et al 2001; Steinberg and Dornbusch 1991; Wu et al 2003) than their peers who work moderately or not at all. Even longitudinal research with controls for pre-employment differences has found that intensive employment puts students at risk for alcohol and drug use (Johnson 2004; Longest and Shanahan 2007; McMorris and Uggen 2000; Mortimer 2003; Mortimer et al 1996; Staff and Uggen 2003).…”

“…They concluded that the consistently reported positive correlation between intensive work and antisocial behavior was driven by a process of selection rather than causation . The possibility that the adolescent work effect on antisocial behavior may actually be spurious is strengthened in light of research consistently demonstrating that intensive workers tend to engage in more delinquency and substance use prior to labor market entry (Gottfredson 1985; Mihalic and Elliott 1997; Mortimer 2003; Ploeger 1997; Steinberg et al 1993). …”

Delinquent boys and precocious girls: Gender, school, and problem behaviour in early adolescence

“…Healy, 1915;Merger, 1930) even when controlling for variables such as social class, age, gender, literacy skills, intelligence and the social composition of the school; and there is now a large body of evidence that the school is an important context for the generation of delinquent behaviour(e.g. Elliott, 1966;Rhodes & Reiss,1969;Kelly, 1971;Polk & Schafer,1972;Elliott & Voss, 1974;Lawrence, 1985;Phillips & Kelly, 1979;Rutter, Nlaughan & , Ouston, 1979;Hanggler, 1989). According to this perspective, while some students play by the rules, accept the school's values, and reap the academic rewards which conformity brings; the failures are predisposed to react negatively to the system that has labelled them, becoming either bored and apathetic or developing a fierce antagonism to the school which may involve the flaunting of specific ascriptive symbols and activities. Typical examples are an early appropriation of adult rights such as drinking, smoking, and sexual activity (cf.…”