“…While antibodies are the traditional affinity and capture agents used for various sensors like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) or surface plasmon resonance (SPR), there are not many natural antibodies for small molecules since they are typically not immunogenic . However, newer types of affinity agents have been developed which are much more easily obtained for small molecules, such as aptamers, which are single-stranded oligonucleotides selected for a specific target using systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). , Aptamers have been increasingly used as affinity agents to capture analytes in sensors due to their many advantages over antibodies, including stability, tunability of affinity and selectivity, low cost, in vitro synthesis, reproducibility, and ability to be easily chemically modified. , Aptamer-based sensors have been used for many clinically and environmentally relevant small, charged molecules such as neurotransmitters (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, and histamine), pesticides (e.g., glyphosate and imidacloprid), toxins (e.g., ochratoxin A), and drugs (e.g., tenofovir) …”