“…It is perhaps for this reason that additional, and often redundant, channels were established to enable citizens to monitor public officials. Village elections (O'Brien and Li, 2000), the media (Stockmann, 2013), civil society organisations (Li et al, 2018;Teets, 2013), public deliberation arenas (He and Warren, 2011), local informants (Guo, 2012;Lucas and Feng, 2018), administrative litigation (Michelson, 2007;O'Brien and Li, 2004;Woo, 2011), and "grid management" (Chen and Kang, 2016;Hu et al, 2018) all helped (local) leaders to gather citizen feedback on government performance. Popular protest represents another source of valuable information on public discontent and is therefore occasionally tolerated by central and local leaders (Cai, 2008;Lorentzen, 2017).…”