Self-esteem: Change and stability between ages 13 and 23.

Abstract

Findings from several studies that have assessed self-esteem at various ages between 13 and 23 are summarized and integrated quantitatively. The data, including some new results from the Monitoring the Future project, show clearly that global self-esteem, as measured by Rosenberg-type scales, increases over that age span. Various methodological pitfalls that could lead to inappropriate conclusions are discussed. We conclude that the burden of proof regarding a rise in reported self-esteem during adolescence and early adulthood has shifted to those who would deny the reality of that rise. In spite of the considerable increase in mean levels, there is also considerable stability of self-esteem. Using both single indicator models and multiple indicator models with correlated errors, the stabilities of self-esteem are shown to be fairly high. Annual stabilities are estimated to be between .6 and .9, depending on the model and depending on the definition of stability. Jackson and Paunonen (1980), in a recent review of current developments in personality structure and assessment, noted that selfesteem is viewed both as an enduring personal disposition characterized by temporal consistency (the trait view) and also as a variable state of self-evaluation regulated by environmental events (the situational view). Bachman, O'Malley, and Johnston (1978; see also Bachman & O'Malley, 1977) provided evidence showing that, indeed, self-esteem is an enduring aspect of personality. Stability, denned by Heise (1969) as "the correlation between true scores at one time with true scores at another time" (p. 97), was estimated by Bachman et al. at close to .9 for 1-year intervals, based on their longitudinal study of young men from the high school qlass of 1969 (Bachman et al., 1978, p. 115). But the same research also showed considerable growth in self-esteem; scores rose one full standard deviation over the period from age 15 to age 23.In her review of studies of the development of the self-concept, Wylie (1979) noted that the Bachman and O'Malley study (which We would like to thank D. Alwin and W. Rodgers for useful comments on an earlier draft of this article.Requests for reprints should be sent to Patrick M.

Influence of Parental Employment Status on Caribbean Adolescents' Self-Esteem

“…This supports findings of previous studies which have found that males have a tendency to report higher selfesteem [26,33,34,[36][37][38].…”

“…As to the specific differences according to gender, results show that girls tend to have a poorer self-esteem than boys during adolescence, regardless of the domains taken into consideration [26,[33][34][35][36][37][38][39] studied secondary school adolescents in Malaysia aged between 13 to 17 years old and also found that males obtained higher self-esteem scores than females. In further support, Kling, Hyde, Showers and Buswell's [40] metaanalysis of gender differences in self-esteem supported that males score higher on standard measures of global self-esteem than females, but stressed that the difference is small.…”

Self-Esteem Across the Lifespan

“…Some studies report a rise in self-esteem during adolescence (Marsh, 1989;McCarthy & Hoge, 1982;Mullis et al, 1992;O'Malley & Bachman, 1983;Prawat, Jones, & Hampton, 1979;Roeser & Eccles, 1998), others report no change (Chubb et al, 1997), and still others report declines (Keltikangas-Jarvinen, 1990;Zimmerman et al, 1997). Some of these inconsistencies may be due to gender differences that are believed to emerge at this age, specifically the tendency for boys to have higher self-esteem than girls (Block & Robins, 1993;Kling, Hyde, Showers, & Buswell, 1999;Major, Barr, Zubek, & Babey, 1999).…”

“…For example, some studies show a rise in self-esteem during adolescence (Marsh, 1989;McCarthy & Hoge, 1982;Mullis, Mullis, & Normandin, 1992;O'Malley & Bachman, 1983), whereas others do not (Block & Robins, 1993;Chubb, Fertman, & Ross, 1997;Zimmerman, Copeland, Shope, & Dielman, 1997). Moreover, if self-esteem does drop in adolescence, researchers have yet to determine the age at which the drop begins, when it reaches its lowest level, and when (if ever) it begins to rise.…”

Adolescents’ Orientations for Development

“…While this view should basically hold true, several qualifications can be made. Self esteem shows an increasing trend from early to late adolescence (O'Malley & Bachman, 1983). Though the successful mastering of steps in one's occupational preparation will contribute to this overal trend, the effects have to be analytically seperated.…”