Sensors for the Detection of Illicit Drugs

Purohit, Sejal; Pandey, Gaurav; Tharmavaram, Maithri; Rawtani, Deepak; Hussain, Chaudhery Mustansar

doi:10.1002/9783527827688.ch11

Cited by 7 publications

(4 citation statements)

References 64 publications

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“…On-site chemical color test reagents are often employed in a predetermined sequence to allow analysts to presumptively identify the drug of interest using a minimum number of tests. Some detection methods for drugs of abuse [104,[185][186][187] allow for quantitative analysis, providing law enforcement with information about the concentration of a specific drug in a sample. They are also deployed at border checkpoints and customs to aid in the rapid screening of incoming shipments for illicit drugs [188].…”

Section: Colorimetry Sensors: Forensic Applicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Electrochemical Sensors, Biosensors, and Optical Sensors for the Detection of Opioids and Their Analogs: Pharmaceutical, Clinical, and Forensic Applications

Fakayode,

Brady,

Grant

et al. 2024

Chemosensors

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Pharmaceutical opioids are intravenously or orally administered analgesics. While they are effective in relieving chronic and acute pain, their narrow window of therapeutic use contributes to the high occurrence of abuse. The associated abuse of this family of drugs can be correlated to the increase in dependency, overdose, and death of users. The negative effects of opioids extend beyond the physical and psychological effects experienced by the user to their unregulated synthesis and sale, which contribute to socioeconomic challenges and are a biproduct of this global public health epidemic. From clinical to point-of-care applications, the detection and real-time monitoring of this family of drug is critical in the fight to decrease abuse and improve use in clinical settings. Chromatographic separations and chromatography–mass spectrometry are traditional methods of opioid analyses, but the high cost, long analysis time, and absence of portability highlight the need for the development of fast, in situ, point-of-care analysis, or of community drug monitoring services. This review highlights recent electrochemical and optical (FTIR, Raman, colorimetric, and fluorescent) advances and biosensors for pharmaceutical and illicit opioid analysis. Specifically, an emphasis is placed on the detection of opioids and their metabolites in biological samples and in vitro cellular assays for clinical diagnosis and forensic applications. The challenges and prospects of the role of electrochemical sensors, biosensors, and optical sensors for opioid analysis in promoting clinical diagnosis, forensic study, point-of-care, and community drug monitoring services to reduce harm are also provided.

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Section: Colorimetry Sensors: Forensic Applicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Electrochemical Sensors, Biosensors, and Optical Sensors for the Detection of Opioids and Their Analogs: Pharmaceutical, Clinical, and Forensic Applications

Fakayode,

Brady,

Grant

et al. 2024

Chemosensors

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“…The transducer can originate from various sources, including optical (e.g., absorbance, luminescence, or fluorescence), electrochemical (e.g., potentiometric or amperometric), or acoustic (e.g., quartz crystal microbalance, surface acoustic wave, or surface transverse wave) mechanisms. Some portable biosensing platforms have been described in recent review articles for the on-site analysis of illicit drugs (Harpaz et al 2022 ; Purohit et al 2020 ; Klimuntowski et al 2020 ; Anzar et al 2022 ; Amini et al 2022 ; Ahmed et al 2020 ).…”

Section: Thc Sensing Technologiesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Recent advances in the development of portable technologies and commercial products to detect Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in biofluids: a systematic review

Clément,

Schlage,

Hoeng

2024

J Cannabis Res

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Background The primary components driving the current commercial fascination with cannabis products are phytocannabinoids, a diverse group of over 100 lipophilic secondary metabolites derived from the cannabis plant. Although numerous phytocannabinoids exhibit pharmacological effects, the foremost attention has been directed towards Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol, the two most abundant phytocannabinoids, for their potential human applications. Despite their structural similarity, THC and cannabidiol diverge in terms of their psychotropic effects, with THC inducing notable psychological alterations. There is a clear need for accurate and rapid THC measurement methods that offer dependable, readily accessible, and cost-effective analytical information. This review presents a comprehensive view of the present state of alternative technologies that could potentially facilitate the creation of portable devices suitable for on-site usage or as personal monitors, enabling non-intrusive THC measurements. Method A literature survey from 2017 to 2023 on the development of portable technologies and commercial products to detect THC in biofluids was performed using electronic databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. A systematic review of available literature was conducted using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic. Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. Results Eighty-nine studies met the selection criteria. Fifty-seven peer-reviewed studies were related to the detection of THC by conventional separation techniques used in analytical laboratories that are still considered the gold standard. Studies using optical (n = 12) and electrochemical (n = 13) portable sensors and biosensors were also identified as well as commercially available devices (n = 7). Discussion The landscape of THC detection technology is predominantly shaped by immunoassay tests, owing to their established reliability. However, these methods have distinct drawbacks, particularly for quantitative analysis. Electrochemical sensing technology holds great potential to overcome the challenges of quantification and present a multitude of advantages, encompassing the possibility of miniaturization and diverse modifications to amplify sensitivity and selectivity. Nevertheless, these sensors have considerable limitations, including non-specific interactions and the potential interference of compounds and substances existing in biofluids. Conclusion The foremost challenge in THC detection involves creating electrochemical sensors that are both stable and long-lasting while exhibiting exceptional selectivity, minimal non-specific interactions, and decreased susceptibility to matrix interferences. These aspects need to be resolved before these sensors can be successfully introduced to the market.

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“… 8 Other techniques, such as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, have been used previously and have their limitations in analyzing mixtures. 9 , 10 Liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection has been proven to be effective as most compounds of interest can be oxidized but as with MS are difficult to translate to POU devices. 11 − 13 …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry can be used to identify and measure the concentration of opioids in drug samples and in human serum; however, the turnaround time to process a sample in a centralized laboratory is long, and the procedure typically requires expensive equipment and specialized training of technicians; though advances toward portable MS have been published, they are not yet capable of point-of-use (POU) applications, which are needed to advance harm mitigation and drug treatment strategies . Other techniques, such as surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, have been used previously and have their limitations in analyzing mixtures. , Liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection has been proven to be effective as most compounds of interest can be oxidized but as with MS are difficult to translate to POU devices. − …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Development of a Graphene-Oxide-Deposited Carbon Electrode for the Rapid and Low-Level Detection of Fentanyl and Derivatives

et al. 2022

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The opioid overdose crisis in North America worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic, with multiple jurisdictions reporting more deaths per day due to the fentanyl-contaminated drug supply than COVID-19. The rapid quantitative detection of fentanyl in the illicit opioid drug supply or in bodily fluids at biologically relevant concentrations (i.e., <80 nM) remains a significant challenge. Electroanalytical techniques are inexpensive and can be used to rapidly detect fentanyl, but detection limits need to be improved. Herein, we detail the development of an electrochemical-based fentanyl analytical detection strategy that used a glassy carbon electrode modified with electrochemically reduced graphene oxide (ERGO) via electrophoretic deposition. The resulting surface was further electrochemically reduced in the presence of fentanyl to enhance the sensitivity. Multiple ERGO thicknesses were prepared in order to prove the versatility and ability to fine-tune the layer to the desired response. Fentanyl was detected at <10 ppb (<30 nM) with a limit of detection of 2 ppb and a calibration curve that covered 4 orders of concentration (from 1 ppb to 10 ppm). This method was sensitive to fentanyl analogues such as carfentanil. Interference from the presence of 100-fold excess of other opioids (heroin, cocaine) or substances typically found in illicit drug samples (e.g. caffeine and sucrose) was not significant.

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Sensors for the Detection of Illicit Drugs

Cited by 7 publications

References 64 publications

Electrochemical Sensors, Biosensors, and Optical Sensors for the Detection of Opioids and Their Analogs: Pharmaceutical, Clinical, and Forensic Applications

Electrochemical Sensors, Biosensors, and Optical Sensors for the Detection of Opioids and Their Analogs: Pharmaceutical, Clinical, and Forensic Applications

Recent advances in the development of portable technologies and commercial products to detect Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in biofluids: a systematic review

Development of a Graphene-Oxide-Deposited Carbon Electrode for the Rapid and Low-Level Detection of Fentanyl and Derivatives

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