Gibson Ferguson
Attitudes to EnglishThe publication of this volume comes at a time of increased debate, and tensions, over language issues in Europe, and of change in the academic discipline of language policy and planning (LPP). The tensions derive from two major social developments which challenge the traditional autonomy of the nation-state in language matters.The first of these, dealt with here very briefly, is the challenge from within Europe itself, posed by the increased multilingualism and ethnic diversity brought about by large-scale migration. This diversity, or 'superdiversity' as Vertovec (2007) puts it, 1 is a challenge to traditional conceptions of the nation-state precisely because language has historically been a foundational factor in the construction of a sense of national identity in many European states. In particular, the standardization, codification and dissemination of a single national language, distinct from surrounding tongues, had been widely seen as essential for national cohesion and for the functioning of the state, and for this reason the policies of European nation-states have traditionally tended to exhibit an endemic bias toward monolingualism in the dominant national language (Wright 2004;Ferguson 2006). It is hardly surprising, then, that recent sharp increases in arrivals of speakers of other languages have been unsettling, and all the more so because recent migrants have remained more transnationally engaged than previous migrant generations, often expressing dual or multiple national loyalties. 2 A recent manifestation of the disquiet has been the imposition of ever stricter requirements for granting citizenship, and, in particular, the introduction in several European states (e.g