Sex-based differences in sub-technique selection during an international classical cross-country skiing competition

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to compare speed, sub-technique selection and temporal patterns between world-class male and female crosscountry (XC) skiers and to examine the combined associations of sex and speed on sub-technique selection. Thirty-three XC skiers performed an international 10-km (women; n = 8) and 15-km (men; n = 25) time-trial competition in the classical style (with the first 10 km of the race being used for analyses). An integrated GNSS/IMU system was used to continuously track position speed and automatically classify sub-techniques and temporal patterns (i.e. cycle length and-rate). When comparing the eight highest ranked men and women, men spent less time than women (29±2 vs. 45± 5% of total time) using diagonal stride (DIA), more time (44±4 vs. 31±4%) using double poling (DP) and more time (23±2 vs. 19±3%) using tucking and turning (all P < .01). Here, men and women used these sub-techniques at similar temporal patterns within the same speedintervals; although men employed all sub-techniques at steeper uphill gradients (all P < .05). In subsequent analyses including all 33 skiers, adjustment for average racing speed did not fully attenuate the observed sex differences in the proportion of time using DIA (CI 95% [-10.7,-1.6]) and DP (CI 95% [0.8, 9.3]). Male world-class XC skiers utilized less DIA and more DP compared to women of equal performance levels. Although these differences coincided with men's higher speed and their ability to use the various sub-techniques at steeper uphill gradients, sexual dimorphism in the proportional use of DIA and DP also occurred independently of these speed-differences.

Comparisons of Macro-Kinematic Strategies During the Rounds of a Cross-Country Skiing Sprint Competition in Classic Technique

“…An interesting finding here was the 32.5 ± 3.3% of the total race distance covered utilizing the non- or semi-cyclical techniques Tuck, Turn and Misc (which includes transitions). Prior to recent studies involving continuous kinematic data collection technology (Marsland et al, 2017 , 2018 ; Solli et al, 2018 , Solli et al, 2020 ), observations concerning tucking have been limited to monitoring speed on short sections of track (Street and Gregory, 1994 ). Only a single recent study focused on the turning techniques of cross-country skiers (Bucher Sandbakk et al, 2014 ), although not during an actual competition.…”

“…In order to extract macro-kinematic data and information on sub-technique usage over longer distances, Andersson et al ( 2010 ) tracked skiers over an entire freestyle sprint time trial, using a snow-mobile and continuous video and GPS data collection. Of considerable interest in this context are recent developments in micro-sensor technology that enable continuous monitoring of velocity, cycle rates, cycle lengths and the extent to which the various sub-techniques are used during both training and competition (Myklebust et al, 2011 ; Marsland et al, 2012 , 2015 , 2017 ; Stöggl et al, 2014 ; Sakurai et al, 2016 ; Solli et al, 2018 , 2020 ).…”

The Training Characteristics of World-Class Male Long-Distance Cross-Country Skiers

“…While the Olympic disciplines include the use of and transition between many different subtechniques (Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017 ; Solli et al, 2018 , 2020 ), the relatively flat terrain profiles in long-distance events are often won on skis without grip wax, using solely the double-poling (DP) subtechnique (Sagelv et al, 2018 ; Zoppirolli et al, 2018 , 2020 ; Skattebo et al, 2019 ; Stöggl et al, 2020 ) As a consequence of these demands and the increasing popularity of long-distance XC skiing, such as the Visma Ski Classics (VSC) series, long-distance XC skiers have fully specialized their training for performance in long-distance events (Skattebo et al, 2019 ). However, in contrast to the detailed examinations of physiological profiles and training characteristics of Olympic XC skiers (Sandbakk et al, 2011 , 2016 ; Tønnessen et al, 2014 ; Sandbakk and Holmberg, 2017 ; Solli et al, 2017 ), these factors have been almost unexplored among skiers who have specialized in long-distance XC.…”

Preparing for the Nordic Skiing Events at the Beijing Olympics in 2022: Evidence-Based Recommendations and Unanswered Questions

“…The XC skiing component in these sports involves competitions with race times ranging from multiple ~ 3-min races in sprint XC skiing (i.e., a qualification time-trial and three knock-out heats) to prolonged endurance distances of 30 km (women) and 50 km (men) lasting 1.5–2 h [ 55 ]. All these events are performed on varying terrain employing different sub-techniques of the classical and/or skating styles that involve upper- and lower-body work to different extents [ 27 , 61 , 62 ]. Consequently, elite performance requires mastering many different sub-techniques, as well as the ability to transition between these efficiently at speeds ranging from 5 to 70 km/h on inclines ranging from − 20% to + 20% gradients.…”