Sex Differences in Adolescent Depression: Stress Exposure and Reactivity Models

Abstract

Stress exposure and reactivity models were examined as explanations for why girls exhibit greater levels of depressive symptoms than boys. In a multiwave, longitudinal design, adolescents' depressive symptoms, alcohol usage, and occurrence of stressors were assessed at baseline, 6, and 12 months later (N=538; 54.5% female; ages 13-18, average 14.9). Daily stressors were coded into developmentally salient domains using a modified contextual-threat approach. Girls reported more depressive symptoms and stressors in certain contexts (e.g., interpersonal) than boys. Sex differences in depression were partially explained by girls reporting more stressors, especially peer events. The longitudinal direction of effects between depression and stressors varied depending on the stressor domain. Girls reacted more strongly to stressors in the form of depression.

School Environment and Adolescent Depressive Symptoms: A Multilevel Longitudinal Study

“…This finding is consistent with research on gender differences in depression, which suggests that girls develop complex biopsychosocial vulnerabilities during adolescence that place them at increased risk of mood difficulties, such as increased biological and cognitive reactivity to stress. 31,48,49 Importantly, these vulnerabilities are thought to be activated specifically when girls are exposed to negative and stressful circumstances. As such, positive, coherent, and secure school environments may constitute an important ecological buffer against mood vulnerabilities in girls.…”

Risk and protective factors associated with trajectories of depressed mood from adolescence to early adulthood.

“…Echoing gender differences that have been commonly reported (Angold, Erkanli, Silberg, Eaves, & Costello, 2002;Cyranowski, Frank, Young, & Shear, 2000;Garber et al, 2002;Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999;Wade, Cairney, & Pevalin, 2002;Wang, 2006), we found females were more likely than males to follow any elevated depressed mood trajectory. Explanations offered for gender discrepancies in adolescent depressive symptoms have pointed to differences in how these symptoms manifest (i.e., as internalizing or externalizing behavior) (Kandel & Davies, 1982), gender-specific coping styles (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2001) and reactivity to negative life events (Cyranowski et al, 2000;Hankin et al, 2007), gender differences in puberty-related hormonal changes (Angold & Costello, 2006), or the interaction between gender-linked risk factors and the multiple physical and psychosocial challenges inherent to the adolescent transition (NolenHoeksema, 1994;Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994). Other authors have noted that gender differences are already apparent in early adolescence (Angold & Rutter, 1992;Cole et al, 2002;Costello, Mustillo, Erkanli, Keeler, & Angold, 2003;Galambos et al, 2004) and may be moderated by age, with the largest gap between males and females occurring in middle adolescence (Hankin et al, 1998).…”

“…During adolescence and young adulthood, however, the twelve-month prevalence rises to 12.4% for major depression and 7.1% for minor depression (Kessler & Walters, 1998). Developmental processes that may explain this rise in prevalence include puberty-related hormonal changes (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001a, 2001b, adolescents' greater capacity for abstract thinking, self-reflection, and rumination associated with cognitive maturation (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1994), and increased psychological stress that may occur as a result of normative developmental transitions (Koenig & Gladstone, 1998) or changing relationships with parents, peers and romantic partners (Hankin, Mermelstein, & Roesch, 2007). Given the evidence that both major and minor depression first appear in adolescence (Costello, Egger, & Angold, 2005), and that early age at onset predicts longer duration (Kovacs, Feinberg, Crouse-Novak, Paulauskas, & Finkelstein, 1984), adolescence is a critical period for identification, prevention, and intervention.…”

Prior sleep problems predict internalising problems later in life

“…However, to our knowledge, the relationship between sleep problems early on and trajectories of psychological difficulties has not been studied. In the present study, we examined the relationship between sleep problems measured between 4 and 16 years of age, and internalising symptoms over an 18 year follow-up period, accounting for factors which could explain this association (sex (Hankin et al, 2007), temperament (Touchette et al, 2005), behavioural difficulties (Silk et al, 2003), stressful life events (Eley & Stevenson, 2000), family socioeconomic position (Arber et al, 2009), (Lorant et al, 2003;Melchior et al, 2011), and parental depression (Swanson et al, 2010).…”